Sino-Soviet relations

{{Unreferenced section|date=July 2024}}

The Beiyang government in North China joined the Allied intervention in the Russian Civil War, sending forces to Siberia and North Russia beginning in 1918.

Mongolia and Tuva became contested territories. After being occupied by the Chinese General Xu Shuzheng in 1919, they came under the sway of the Russian White Guard General turned independent warlord, Roman von Ungern-Sternberg in 1920. Soviet troops, with support from Mongolian guerrillas led by Damdin Sükhbaatar, defeated the White warlord and established a new pro-Soviet Mongolian client state, which by 1924 became the Mongolian People's Republic.

Grigori Voitinsky played an important role in the establishment of the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) in 1921 through the Comintern.{{Cite book |last=Dirlik |first=Arif |url=https://archive.org/details/originsofchinese00dirl |title=The Origins of Chinese Communism |date=1989 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-505454-5 |pages=191 |language=en}} Moscow Sun Yat-sen University serves as a training camp for Chinese revolutionaries from both the Kuomintang (KMT) and the Chinese Communist Party (CCP).

In 1921, Soviet Russia began supporting the Kuomintang (KMT), and in 1923 the Communist International instructed the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) to sign a military treaty with the KMT. On 31 May 1924, the two governments signed an agreement to establish diplomatic relations.{{citation needed|date=March 2023}}

Sun Yat-sen welcomed the Soviet support, which assisted the KMT in fighting the northern warlords.{{Cite book |last=Laikwan |first=Pang |title=One and All: The Logic of Chinese Sovereignty |date=2024 |publisher=Stanford University Press |isbn=9781503638815 |location=Stanford, CA |doi=10.1515/9781503638822}}{{Rp|page=86}} From the Soviet perspective, its aid was consistent with the Soviet commitment to help revolutionary parties in other countries engage in national revolutions.{{Rp|page=86}}

Sun's Soviet advisor Mikhail Borodin and his aides started Whampoa Military Academy in May 1924.{{Cite book |last=Crean |first=Jeffrey |title=The Fear of Chinese Power: an International History |date=2024 |publisher=Bloomsbury Academic |isbn=978-1-350-23394-2 |edition= |series=New Approaches to International History series |location=London, UK |pages=}}{{Rp|page=55}} The academy provided training for commanders who would be significant in both the KMT and the communist armies and provided a military edge over the less professionalized Chinese warlord armies.{{Rp|page=55}} Soviet advisors were the academy's primary instructors.{{Cite book |last=Hammond |first=Ken |title=China's Revolution and the Quest for a Socialist Future |publisher=1804 Books |year=2023 |isbn=9781736850084 |location=New York, NY |pages=}}{{Rp|page=26}}

In 1926, KMT leader Chiang Kai-shek abruptly dismissed his Soviet advisers and imposed restrictions on CCP participation in the government. By 1927, after the conclusion of the Northern Expedition, Chiang ended the First United Front between the CCP and Kuomintang, resulting in the Chinese Civil War which would last until 1949, a few months after the proclamation of the People's Republic of China by Chairman of the Chinese Communist Party Mao Zedong. During the war, the Soviets gave some support to the CCP, which in 1934 suffered a crushing blow when the KMT brought an end to the Jiangxi Soviet, thus causing the CCP's Long March from Shaanxi.{{cn|date=July 2024}}

{{main|Sino-Soviet conflict (1929)}}

The Sino-Soviet conflict of 1929 was a minor armed conflict between the Soviet Union and China over the Manchurian Chinese Eastern Railway. The Chinese seized the Manchurian Chinese Eastern Railway in 1929; swift Soviet military intervention quickly put an end to the crisis and forced the Chinese to accept restoration of joint Soviet–Chinese administration of the railway.{{cn|date=July 2024}}

{{main|Soviet invasion of Xinjiang|Islamic rebellion in Xinjiang (1937)}}

In 1934, the Republic of China's 36th Division (National Revolutionary Army), which was composed of Muslims, severely mauled the Soviet Union's Red Army and their White movement allies when the Soviets attempted to seize Xinjiang.{{Citation needed|date=March 2021}}

The Soviet Union intervened again in Xinjiang in 1937.{{cn|date=July 2024}}

File:Wuhan-Soviet-Aviators-Tomb-0175.jpg who died in defense of China from Japanese invaders. The unit was based in Wuhan in 1938]]

In 1931, Japan invaded Manchuria and created the puppet state of Manchukuo (1932), which signaled the beginning of the Second Sino-Japanese War. In August 1937, a month after the Marco Polo Bridge Incident, the Soviet Union established a non-aggression pact with China. The Republic of China received credits for $250 million for the purchase of Soviet weapons. There followed big arms deliveries, including guns, artillery pieces, more than 900 aircraft and 82 tanks.{{sfn|Heinzig|2004|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=yCDv67C2BzkC&pg=PA27 27]}} More than 1,500 Soviet military advisers and about 2,000 members of the air force were sent to China.{{sfn|Heinzig|2004|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=yCDv67C2BzkC&pg=PA27 27]}} The deliveries halted in August 1941 due to the German invasion of the Soviet Union. Joseph Stalin viewed Japan as a potential enemy, and as a result offered no help to Chinese communists between 1937 and 1941, in order not to weaken efforts of the Nationalist government.{{sfn|Heinzig|2004|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=yCDv67C2BzkC&pg=PA27 27]}} During the World War II period, the two countries suffered more losses than any other country, with China (in the Second Sino-Japanese War) losing about 30 million people and the Soviet Union 26 million.{{cn|date=July 2024}}

On 8 August 1945, three months after Nazi Germany surrendered, and on the week of the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki by the United States, the Soviet Union launched the invasion of Manchuria, a massive military operation mobilizing 1.5 million soldiers against one million Kwantung Army troops, the last remaining Japanese military presence. Soviet forces won a decisive victory while the Kwantung suffered massive casualties, with 700,000 having surrendered.

In late August 1945, Stalin proposed to Mao that the region north of the Yangtze river be ruled by the CCP and that the region south by ruled by the KMT.{{sfn|Zhao|2022|p=25}} According to Wang Jiaxiang, China's first ambassador to the Soviet Union, Stalin was concerned by the independent streak of communist China and was concerned about the prospect of future competition with the Soviet Union.{{sfn|Zhao|2022|p=25}}

In September 1945, the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) dispatched soldiers to Soviet-occupied Manchuria.{{Cite book |last=Hirata |first=Koji |title=Making Mao's Steelworks: Industrial Manchuria and the Transnational Origins of Chinese Socialism |date=2024 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-009-38227-4 |series=Cambridge Studies in the History of the People's Republic of China series |location=New York, NY}}{{Rp|page=73}} The CCP obtained Japanese arms with Soviet help.{{Rp|page=73}} The Soviet stance regarding the CCP and the KMT oscillated during this period, and in November 1945 the Soviet Union requested that the CCP withdraw from major cities in Manchuria.{{Rp|page=73}}

{{main|Ili Rebellion}}

While the Republic of China was concentrating on the Second Sino-Japanese War, the Soviet Union supported Uyghur nationalists in their uprise in Xinjiang and set up Second East Turkestan Republic against the Kuomintang. After the CCP defeated the Kuomintang in 1949, the Soviet Union terminated support for the Second East Turkestan Republic.{{cn|date=July 2024}}

The Soviets tried to spread anti-Chinese propaganda among minorities in Xinjiang, but this backfired when Uyghur mobs attacked White Russians and called for them to be expelled from Xinjiang.{{cite book |chapter=Unsuccessful attempts to resolve political problems in Sinkiang; extent of Soviet aid and encouragement to rebel groups in Sinkiang; border incident at Peitashan |chapter-url=http://images.library.wisc.edu/FRUS/EFacs/1947v07/reference/frus.frus1947v07.i0008.pdf |title=Foreign Relations of the United States, 1947 |volume=VII: The Far East: China |location=Washington |publisher=United States Government Printing Office |year=1972|pages=546–587 |access-date=2023-01-10}}

After 1946, the CCP was increasingly successful in the Civil War. Until the late 1940s, the Soviet Union had hedged and supported both the CCP and the KMT.{{Rp|page=90}} In late 1948, the Soviet Union committed fully to supporting the CCP.{{Rp|page=90}} In May 1948, the Soviet Union had advised the CCP not to cross the Yangtze river with its army,{{sfn|Zhao|2022|p=25}} but in April 1949 the CCP ignored this advice, and the People's Liberation Army launched a crossing of the Yangtze river and captured the KMT's capital city, Nanjing, in only a matter of days.{{sfn|Zhao|2022|p=25}}

On 30 June 1949, Mao stated that China would "lean to one side" in the Cold War era and favor the socialist camp over the capitalist camp.{{sfn|Zhao|2022|p=27}} Mao announced that China must ally "with the Soviet Union, with every New Democratic Country, and with the proletariat and broad masses in all other countries".{{sfn|Zhao|2022|p=27}}

On 1 October 1949, the People's Republic of China was proclaimed by Mao Zedong, and by May 1950 the KMT had been expelled from Mainland China, remaining in control of Taiwan. With the creation of the People's Republic of China, the supreme political authority in the two countries became centred in two communist parties, both espousing revolutionary, Marxist–Leninist ideology: the CCP and the Communist Party of the Soviet Union. The day after the PRC's founding, the Soviet Union terminated its diplomatic relations with the KMT and recognized the PRC.{{sfn|Zhao|2022|p=28}}

File:Mao, Bulganin, Stalin, Ulbricht Tsedenbal.jpeg (2nd left) visiting Stalin (2nd right) in Moscow, December 1949]]

In late 1949, Mao went to Moscow to seek economic help. Stalin kept him waiting for weeks, humiliating Mao in treatment worthy of a minor vassal.{{sfn|Crozier|1999|pp=142-149}}{{cite news|last=Trofimov|first=Yaroslav |author-link=Yaroslav Trofimov|date=1 February 2019|title=The New Beijing-Moscow Axis|url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/the-new-beijing-moscow-axis-11549036661 |newspaper=The Wall Street Journal|access-date=10 January 2023}} Stalin was focused on European matters and sought Mao's assistance in supporting the Vietnamese Communists against France in the First Indochina War.{{Cite book |last=Li |first=Xiaobing |title=The Cold War in East Asia |date=2018 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-138-65179-1 |location=Abingdon, Oxon}}{{Rp|page=65}} Mao accepted Stalin's view of a "worldwide communist revolution" and agreed to share "the international responsibility" and support the Vietnamese communists.{{Rp|page=65}} After Mao's return to China, the country began sending military advisors and military aid to the Vietnamese.{{Rp|page=66}}

After the establishment of the People's Republic of China, a sensitive issue emerged. As a condition of fighting the Kwantung Army at the end of World War II, the Soviet Union received usage rights of the Chinese Eastern Railway, the South Manchuria Railway, Lüshun (also known as Port Arthur) and Dalian. These privileges were significant in the Asian strategies of the Soviet Union because Port Arthur and Dalian were ice-free ports for the Soviet Navy, and the Chinese Eastern Railway and the South Manchuria Railway were the essential arterial communications which connected Siberia to Port Arthur and Dalian. As Mao Zedong thought that the usage rights of the Chinese Eastern Railway, the South Manchuria Railway, the Port Arthur and Dalian were part of Chinese state sovereignty, he required the Soviet Union to return these interests to China, and this was a crucial part of the Sino-Soviet Treaty of Friendship. Joseph Stalin initially refused this treaty, but finally agreed with this treaty. However, the ports were not returned until after Stalin died.{{cite journal|last=Peskov|first=Yuri |date=2010 |title=Sixty Years of the Treaty of Friendship, Alliance and Mutual Assistance Between the U.S.S.R. and the PRC, February 14, 1950 |journal=Far Eastern Affairs |volume=38|number=1 |pages=100–115}}

In the early PRC, Gao Gang and the Northeast People's Government had major roles in conducting the China's relations with the Soviet Union.{{Rp|page=127}}

During the 1950s, the Soviet Union was the largest supplier of machinery to Chinese industries.{{Rp|page=137}}

Stalin allowed Kim Il Sung to launch the Korean War.{{cite journal |last=Shen|first=Zhihua|author-link=Shen Zhihua |date=Spring 2000|title=Sino-Soviet Relations and the Origins of the Korean War: Stalin's Strategic Goals in the Far East|url=https://sites.fas.harvard.edu/~hpcws/2.2zhihua.pdf|journal=Journal of Cold War Studies|volume=2|issue=2|pages=44–68|doi=10.1162/15203970051032309|s2cid=57565927 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200930215724/https://sites.fas.harvard.edu/~hpcws/2.2zhihua.pdf|archive-date=2020-09-30|url-status=dead}} However, both Kim Il Sung and Stalin did not consider that the United States would intervene into that war immediately, if at all. Kim Il Sung could not sustain the attack against the United States Army. When Kim Il Sung required military assistance from the Soviet Union and China, Mao agreed to send Chinese troops, but asked the Soviet Air Forces to provide air cover. As the two leaders distrusted each other, Stalin agreed with sending Chinese troops to Korea, but refused to provide air cover.{{cite journal|last=Shen|first=Zhihua|date=2010|title=China and the Dispatch of the Soviet Air Force: The Formation of the Chinese–Soviet–Korean Alliance in the Early Stage of the Korean War|journal=Journal of Strategic Studies|volume=33|issue=2 |pages=211–230|doi=10.1080/01402391003590291|s2cid=154427564}} Since without the air cover from the Soviet Union, Mao once considered that China did not send troops into Korea, and Stalin at one time decided to give up the Korea Peninsula. After much thought, Mao solely sent Chinese troops into Korea on 19 October 1950 under an extremely hard Chinese economic and military situation. This activity ultimately changed the Sino-Soviet relationship. After 12 days of Chinese troops entering the war, Stalin allowed the Soviet Air Forces to provide air cover, and supported more aid to China. Mao sending Chinese troops to take part in the Korean War was followed by large-scale economic and military cooperation between China and the Soviet Union, and the friendly relationship of the two countries changed from titular to virtual. In one less known example of the Sino-Soviet military cooperation, in April–June 1952 a group of Soviet Tupolev Tu-4 aircraft were based in Beijing to perform reconnaissance missions on United States fusion bomb tests in the Pacific.{{cite web|date=2012-10-26|title=П.В.Струнов. Специальные полеты в Китае |url=http://www.airforce.ru/history/cold_war/strunov/index.htm |website=Airforce.ru|language=ru|access-date=2023-01-10}}

{{main|Sino-Soviet split}}

{{further|History of the Soviet Union (1964–1982)#People's Republic of China|l1=Sino-Soviet relations during the Brezhnev era}}

Thus, in the immediate years after the PRC was proclaimed, the Soviet Union became its closest ally. Moscow sent thousands of Soviet engineers and workers, and trainloads of machinery and tools. By the late 1950s, the Soviets had erected a network of modern industrial plants across China, capable of producing warplanes, tanks and warships. Moscow even provided some nuclear technology. Mao, however, deeply distrusted Nikita Khrushchev for abandoning the strict traditions of Lenin and Stalin. In the late 1950s – early 1960s, relations became deeply strained. By attacking Soviet revisionism, Mao consolidated his political struggle in Beijing and won over his opponents. Khrushchev ridiculed the failures of the Great Leap Forward and the people's commune movement.{{cite journal|last1=Shen|first1=Zhihua |last2=Xia |first2=Yafeng |date=2011 |title=The Great Leap Forward, the People's Commune and the Sino-Soviet Split |journal=Journal of Contemporary China|volume=20|issue=72 |pages=861–880|doi=10.1080/10670564.2011.604505|s2cid=153857326}} The Sino-Soviet split was marked by small scale fighting in the Sino-Soviet border conflict in 1969. Moscow considered a preemptive nuclear strike.{{cite book|last=Westad|first=Odd Arne|author-link=Odd Arne Westad|year=2017|title=The Cold War: A World History|location=London|publisher=Allen Lane|pages=233–260|isbn=978-0-14-197991-5}} That never happened, but the Soviets did encourage Uyghurs to rebel against China.{{cite book|last=Mylonas|first=Harris |author-link=Harris Mylonas|year=2012|title=The Politics of Nation-Building: Making Co-Nationals, Refugees, and Minorities|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TOIHbEBhzPkC&pg=PA176|location=New York|publisher=Cambridge University Press|pages=176–177|isbn=978-1-107-02045-0}} More important, China launched its own bid to control communist movements around the world, and in most cases local communist parties split between the two sponsors, confusing fellow travelers and weakening the overall communist movement in the Third World. Beijing said the Soviet Union had fallen into the trap of social imperialism, and was now seen as the greatest threat it faced. Mao made overtures to Richard Nixon and the United States, culminating in the sensational 1972 Nixon visit to China.{{cn|date=July 2024}}

{{main|Sino-Soviet relations from 1969 to 1991}}

In 1976, Mao died, and in 1978, the Gang of Four were overthrown by Premier Hua Guofeng,{{Cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Hua-Guofeng|title=Hua Guofeng {{!}} premier of China |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|access-date=2023-01-10}} who was soon to implement pro-market economic reform. With the PRC no longer espousing the anti-revisionist notion of the antagonistic contradiction between classes, relations between the two countries became gradually normalized. In 1979, however, the PRC invaded Vietnam (which had, after a period of ambivalence, sided with the Soviet Union) in response to the Vietnam's invasion of Cambodia which overthrew the China-backed Khmer Rouge from power.{{cn|date=July 2024}}

During the Sino-Soviet split, strained relations between China and the Soviet Union resulted in strained relations between China and the pro-Soviet Afghan communist regime. China and Afghanistan had neutral relations with each other during the rule of King Mohammed Zahir Shah. When the pro-Soviet Afghan communists seized power in Afghanistan in 1978, relations between China and the Afghan communists quickly turned hostile. The Afghan pro-Soviet communists supported the Vietnamese during the Sino-Vietnamese War and blamed China for supporting Afghan anti-communist militants. China responded to the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan by supporting the Afghan mujahideen and ramping up their military presence near Afghanistan in Xinjiang. China acquired military equipment from the United States to defend itself from Soviet attack.{{sfn|Shichor|2004|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=GXj4a3gss8wC&pg=PA157 157]}}

China moved its training camps for the mujahideen from Pakistan into China itself. Hundreds of millions worth of anti-aircraft missiles, rocket launchers and machine guns were given to the mujahideen by the Chinese. Chinese military advisers and army troops were present with the mujahideen during training.{{sfn|Shichor|2004|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=GXj4a3gss8wC&pg=PA158 158]}}

In 1980, China adopted a new Military Strategic Guideline that envisioned using a combined arms approach and positional warfare to defend against a potential invasion by the Soviet Union.{{Cite book |last=Cunningham |first=Fiona S. |title=Under the Nuclear Shadow: China's Information-Age Weapons in International Security |date=2025 |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=978-0-691-26103-4 |location=}}{{Rp|page=77}}

Relations significantly improved in the early 1980s.{{Cite book |last=Crean |first=Jeffrey |title=The Fear of Chinese Power: an International History |date=2024 |publisher=Bloomsbury Academic |isbn=978-1-350-23394-2 |edition= |series=New Approaches to International History series |location=London, UK |pages=}}{{Rp|page=141}} In 1984, Deng Xiaoping stated that the People's Liberation Army no longer needed to anticipate an imminent invasion from the Soviet Union.{{Rp|page=77}}

The deaths of Soviet leaders Leonid Brezhnev (in 1982), Yuri Andropov (1984), and Konstantin Chernenko (1985) provided the opportunity for Sino-Soviet "funeral diplomacy" and an improvement in relations.{{sfn|Zhao|2022|p=59}} Chinese Foreign Minister Huang Hua met with Soviet Foreign Affairs Minister Andrei Gromyko at Brezhnev's funeral.{{sfn|Zhao|2022|p=59}} Chinese Vice Premier and Politburo member Wan Li attended Andropov's funeral in a diplomatic move which signaled China's positive view of Andropov and optimism for better relations.{{sfn|Zhao|2022|p=59}} Soviet-educated and Russian-speaking Vice Premier Li Peng attended Chernenko's funeral and met with Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev twice. Gorbachev affirmed to Li that the Soviet Union also wished to improve relations.{{sfn|Zhao|2022|p=59}} At the Li–Gorbachev meetings, the two sides began again to refer to each other as "comrades" and Li congratulated the Soviet Union for its "socialist course".{{sfn|Zhao|2022|p=59}} Despite the reconciliation, China made clear that it would continue to develop an independent foreign policy.{{sfn|Zhao|2022|p=59}}

China's reform and opening up and the Soviet Union's perestroika raised similar challenges for both countries.{{sfn|Zhao|2022|p=60}} Chinese leader Deng Xiaoping wanted to reduce tensions with the Soviet Union to facilitate focusing resources on economic development.{{sfn|Zhao|2022|p=60}} Gorbachev likewise sought a more peaceful bilateral relationship in order to reduce military expenditures.{{sfn|Zhao|2022|p=60}} Intrigued by reform and opening up, Gorbachev told a Chinese magazine, "We take special interest in China's ongoing economic and political reforms. Our two countries are now faced with similar problems. This will open a broad horizon for useful mutual exchange of experiences."{{sfn|Zhao|2022|p=60}}

The September 1989 withdrawal of Vietnam's forces from Cambodia further reduced Sino-Soviet tension. Gorbachev visited Beijing in May 1989 for the first summit between the two nations in thirty years.{{sfn|Zhao|2022|p=61}}

{{Unreferenced section|date=July 2024}}{{see also|Sino-Russian relations since 1991|Russia–Taiwan relations}}

Unlike that of the PRC, this was a much more extreme, highly unregulated form of privatization which resulted in massive losses to foreign speculators, near-anarchical conditions and economic collapse. Thus, in the post–Cold War period, while the Soviet Union remained vastly more developed (economically and militarily), in a systemic and deep way (i.e., the PRC in 1949 was less industrialized than Russia in 1914), the PRC emerged in a far more favorable and stable financial position. While the severe Soviet shortage of capital was new, Chinese economic and military underdevelopment was not. Nor was the PRC's desperate and ever-growing need for mineral resources, especially petroleum fuel, which the Soviet Union held in abundance in such Asiatic regions as Western Siberia.

• History of Sino-Russian relations
• History of foreign relations of the People's Republic of China
• Sino-Soviet Treaty of Friendship and Alliance
• China and Russia: Four Centuries of Conflict and Concord (book)
• Battle of Baitag Bogd

{{Reflist}}

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• {{cite book |last=Zhao |first=Suisheng |year=2022 |title=The Dragon Roars Back: Transformational Leaders and Dynamics of Chinese Foreign Policy |location=Stanford, California |publisher=Stanford University Press |isbn=978-1-5036-3415-2 |oclc=1332788951}}
• {{cite journal |last=Zubok |first=Vladislav |author-link=Vladislav Zubok |date=May 2017 |title=The Soviet Union and China in the 1980s: Reconciliation and Divorce |journal=Cold War History |volume=17 |issue=2 |pages=121–141 |doi=10.1080/14682745.2017.1315923 |s2cid=157596575 |url=http://eprints.lse.ac.uk/79133/1/Zubok_Soviet%20Union%20and%20China_2017.pdf |s2cid-access=free}}

• [http://www.worldlii.org/int/other/LNTSer/1925/160.html Agreement from 1924 on the establishment of diplomatic relations]

{{China–Russia relations}}

{{Foreign relations of China}}

{{Foreign relations of the Soviet Union}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Sino-Soviet relations}}

Soviet Union

Category:Bilateral relations of the Soviet Union

Category:China–Russia relations