Spiritual Christianity

The historian Pavel Milyukov traced the origins of Spiritual Christianity to the Doukhobors, who were first recorded in the 1800s but originated earlier. Milyukov believed the movement reflected developments among Russian peasants similar to those underlying the German Peasants' War in the German Reformation of the 1500s.{{cite journal|last=Norman R. Yetman|date=Summer 1968|title=Doukhoborism and Reitalization|journal=Kansas Journal of Sociology|publisher=Allen Press|volume=4|issue=3|page=153|jstor=23255160}} Many Spiritual Christians embraced egalitarian and pacifist beliefs, which were considered politically radical views by the Russian government. It deported some groups to internal exile in Central Asia. About one percent escaped suppression by emigrating (1898–1930s) to North America forming a diaspora that divided into many sub-groups.{{cite journal|last=Dunn|first=Ethel|author2=Stephen P. Dunn|date=November 1978|title=The Molokans [Molokane, Pryguny, and Dukh-i-zhizniki] in America|journal=Dialectical Anthropology|publisher=Springer|volume=3|issue=4|pages=352–353|jstor=29789944}}

Among the many sectarians (sektanty : сектанты) in Imperial Russia considered to practice Spiritual Christianity are the Dukhobortsy, Maksimisty, Molokans, Subbotniki, Pryguny (Jumpers), Khlysts, Skoptsy, Ikonobortsy (Icon-fighters, "Iconoclasts") and Zhidovstvuyushchiye (Жидовствующие: Judaizers). These sects often have radically different notions of "spirituality" and practices. Their common denominator is that they sought God in "Spirit and Truth" (Gospel of John 4:24) rather than in the Orthodox Church or ancient rites of Popovtsy. Their saying was, "The church is not within logs, but within ribs".{{Citation needed|date=June 2011}} The movement was popular with intellectuals such as Tolstoy. Nikolai Leskov was also drawn to Spiritual Christianity after visiting Protestant Europe in 1875.{{cite journal|last=Lottridge|first=Stephen S.|date=Autumn 1974|title=Nikolaj Leskov's Moral Vision in the Prolog Tales|journal=The Slavic and East European Journal|publisher=American Association of Teachers of Slavic and East European Languages|volume=18|issue=3|pages=252–258|jstor=306256|doi=10.2307/306256}}

Separate from Spiritual Christianity were other strands of Russian sektanstvo ("sectarianism" in the sense "splitting into sects" rather than "sectarian bigotry") including the Popovtsy and "Evangelical Christianity".Berdyaev (1916)

File:The Molokane (A).jpg

The Molokane are a sect that has been compared to the Radical Reformation, to the Quakers,{{Cite web |last=Georgieff |first=by Dimana Trankova; photography by Anthony |date=2015-09-24 |title=WHO ARE THE MOLOKANS? |url=https://vagabond.bg/who-are-molokans-1095 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201028075329/https://vagabond.bg/who-are-molokans-1095 |url-status=dead |archive-date=October 28, 2020 |access-date=2022-08-12 |website=VAGABOND |language=en}} and often confused with other Spiritual Christian faiths from Russia. They have a Protestant-like view of the authority of scripture, however interpreting the bible allegorically or "spiritually", they see the sacraments "spiritually", reject the use of icons, images of the cross and Church hierarchy along with venerating the saints.{{Cite web |date=2021-09-03 |title=Molokans in Armenia: 20 years ago and now |url=https://jam-news.net/molokans-in-armenia-20-years-ago-and-now/ |access-date=2022-08-12 |website=English Jamnews |language=en-US}}{{Cite book |last=Buss |first=Andreas |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vvt5DwAAQBAJ&dq=Molokans+protestant&pg=PA85 |title=The Russian-Orthodox Tradition and Modernity |date=2018-11-01 |publisher=BRILL |isbn=978-90-474-0272-5 |language=en}}{{Cite book |last=Mollica |first=Marcello |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uPGtDQAAQBAJ&dq=Molokans+protestant+icons&pg=PA78 |title=Fundamentalism: Ethnographies on Minorities, Discrimination and Transnationalism |date=2016 |publisher=LIT Verlag Münster |isbn=978-3-643-80201-9 |language=en}}{{Cite web |date=2017-10-12 |title=Protestants in Russia: An active minority |url=https://neweasterneurope.eu/2017/10/12/protestants-russia-active-minority/ |access-date=2022-08-08 |website=New Eastern Europe - A bimonthly news magazine dedicated to Central and Eastern European affairs |language=en-GB}}{{Cite book |last=Wardin |first=Albert W. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XLlNAwAAQBAJ&dq=Molokans+protestant&pg=PA8 |title=On the Edge: Baptists and Other Free Church Evangelicals in Tsarist Russia, 1855–1917 |date=2013-10-28 |publisher=Wipf and Stock Publishers |isbn=978-1-62032-962-7 |language=en}} Molokane believe each has their own inner light, therefore do not need someone to "jump in the spirit" for them. In Russia, they advocated for pacifism, held home meetings, did not drink or smoke, opposed contraception and some modern technology.{{Cite web |title=Ethnic Russian Sect Struggling to Survive in Azerbaijan {{!}} Eurasianet |url=https://eurasianet.org/ethnic-russian-sect-struggling-to-survive-in-azerbaijan |access-date=2022-08-12 |website=eurasianet.org |language=en}} Many Molokans follow the Old Testament food laws, refusing to eat pork, shellfish or unclean foods. They were named for consuming dairy products (moloko: Russian for "milk") during most Orthodox fasting days.{{Cite web |title=Among Armenia's Molokans |url=https://www.rferl.org/a/armenia-russian-molokans-society/26907858.html |access-date=2022-08-12 |website=RadioFreeEurope/RadioLiberty |date=18 March 2015 |language=en}} About 40,000 continue the faith in Russia, and one meeting hall continues to meet on Potrero Hill, San Francisco, since 1928.

Mokrye Molokane are a Molokan subsect that split off from the Molokans in the year 2000, that is nearly identical to the Molokans but practice water baptism.{{Cite web |last=Andrei |first=Conovaloff |title=Taxonomy of 3 Spiritual Christian groups: Molokane, Pryguny and Dukh-i-zhizniki |url=http://www.molokane.org/taxonomy/ |access-date=2022-08-20 |website=www.molokane.org}}

Sukhie Baptisty was a 19th-century Spiritual Christian movement,{{Cite book |last=IAkunin |first=Vadim |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=q2URAQAAIAAJ&q=%D0%A1%D1%83%D1%85%D0%B8%D0%B5+%D0%91%D0%B0%D0%BF%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D1%8B |title=Религиозные организации г. Тольятти: справочник |date=1999 |publisher=Sovremennik |isbn=978-5-85234-043-6 |language=ru}} which was born from Molokans who merged with the Russian Union of Evangelical Christians. They were called "dry baptists", because they refused to baptize believers in physical water, but instead believing in a "baptism of the spirit", insisting that baptism was a purely spiritual experience instead of a physical one.{{Cite book |last1=Cross |first1=Anthony R. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZwUCEAAAQBAJ&dq=Dry+Baptists+Russia&pg=PA210 |title=Baptist Sacramentalism 3 |last2=Thompson |first2=Philip E. |date=2020-09-28 |publisher=Wipf and Stock Publishers |isbn=978-1-7252-8608-5 |language=en}} Very few dry Baptists still exist in Georgia.{{Cite web |last=Conovaloff |first=Andrei |title=Taxonomy of 3 Spiritual Christian groups: Molokane, Pryguny and Dukh-i-zhizniki |url=http://www.molokane.org/taxonomy/#Dukh-i-zhizniki |access-date=2022-08-16 |website=www.molokane.org}}

Molokan-Adventisty are a hybrid sect of Molokans and Seventh Day Adventists, the sect was born because of German Adventist missionaries in the 20th century.

The Pryguny (translation: Jumpers) were formed from several heterodox (sectarian) movements in Central Russia and Taurida Governorate, most of whom were isolated in the newly acquired South Caucasus to not infect the Orthodox. Named for their ecstatic spiritual jumping dances, these new tribes variously embraced a few essential "Christ's holidays" from Orthodoxy, "God's holidays" from the Old Testament and Subbotniks, adding new prophecies and rituals similar to Khlysty. They have some similarities to western Pentecostalism.{{Cite web |title=Russian Molokans: Their Roots and Current Status - East-West Church & Ministry Report |url=https://www.eastwestreport.org/43-english/e-20-2/340-russian-molokans-their-roots-and-current-status |access-date=2022-08-20 |website=www.eastwestreport.org}} One outspoken Prygun leader in Erivan Governorate, Maksim G. Rudomyotkin (1818-1877), formed his own Maksimist faith, which merged with the new Dukh-i-zhiznik movement formed in Los Angeles, California in the 1930s by adherents who migrated there from 1905 through 1912.

Dukhobortsy were an 18th-century Spiritual Christian movement that evolved from ikonobortsy, opposed all external authorities and the literal Bible, instead being in favour of direct individual revelation. They abolished priests and sacraments, were pacifists and opposed the authority of church and state.{{Cite web |title=Dukhobor {{!}} Russian religious sect {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Dukhobor |access-date=2022-08-20 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}} One-third mass migrated to Canada (1899-1938), and about 15-20k Dukhobortsy still exist in Russia.

Doukhobors are not Sons of Freedom. Soon after immigration began to the Canadian prairies, in 1902 a zealous faction calling themselves svobodniki (free-sovereign people) separated from and attacked other Doukhobors and the Canadian government. The svobodniki began several protest marches (treks) to return to Russia. They harassed other Doukhobors for not joining their anarchistic movement.{{cite book |last1=Tarasoff |first1=Koozma J. |title=In search of Brotherhood: A History of the Doukhobors |date=1963 |publisher=University of British Columbia, Vancouver. British Columbia, Canada. |publication-place=Doukhobor Collection}} By the 1920s the they were called "Sons of Freedom" and "Freedomites", and were extensively confused with the Independent Doukhobors who registered their own land and attended public schools; and the Christian Community of Universal Brotherhood (CCUB: community Doukhobors) led by Peter V. Verigin. The Sons of Freedom conducted various protests (nude treks, arson, bombings, not owning land, etc.) into the 1980s.

The Khlysts (whips, flagellants) were a 17th-century sect that left the Russian Orthodox Church, they held extremely ascetic views, the Khlyst sect became extinct during the Soviet Union.{{Cite book |last=Carvalho |first=Joaquim |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jR98-Ata0CkC&dq=Khlysts&pg=PA150 |title=Religion and Power in Europe: Conflict and Convergence |date=2007 |publisher=Edizioni Plus |isbn=978-88-8492-464-3 |language=en}} The Khlysty imposed self denial and focused on the reception of the Holy Spirit through constant prayer, they were denounced as "Quaker heretics" and practices such as ecstatic forms of worship, rhythmic dancing, chants and celibacy resembled the practice of the Shakers.{{Cite book |last=Engelstein |first=Laura |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lfutDwAAQBAJ&dq=Khlysts+charismatic&pg=PA122 |title=Slavophile Empire: Imperial Russia's Illiberal Path |date=2011-01-15 |publisher=Cornell University Press |isbn=978-0-8014-5945-0 |language=en}} The Khlyst practices also resembled Pentecostal sects.{{Cite book |last=Stark |first=Werner |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-T1GAQAAQBAJ&dq=Khlysts+pentecostal&pg=PA168 |title=Soc Relign Pt2:Sec Relg Ils 80 |date=2013-10-08 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-136-23822-2 |language=en}} C. L. Sulzberger, in 1977, claimed that Rasputin "adopted the philosophy (if not proven membership)" of the Khlysts.{{harvnb|Sulzberger|1977|p=214}}

Postniki were a sect that was born out of the Khlysts.{{Cite book |last=Lane |first=Christel |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VSmdHtacha8C&dq=Postniki&pg=PA93 |title=Christian Religion in the Soviet Union: A Sociological Study |date=1978-01-01 |publisher=SUNY Press |isbn=978-0-87395-327-6 |language=en}} They emphasized ascetism.{{Cite book |last=Buss |first=Andreas |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vvt5DwAAQBAJ&dq=Postniki&pg=PA77 |title=The Russian-Orthodox Tradition and Modernity |date=2018-11-01 |publisher=BRILL |isbn=978-90-474-0272-5 |language=en}} They branched into Staroizrail and New Israel.

Skoptsy, now extinct, originally split off from the Khlysts and had a high following in the 19th century. The sect believed that forgiveness of sin came through self mutilation, like castration. They also believed that when enough people joined them, Jesus would return.{{Cite web |last=Interesting |first=All That's |date=2020-01-09 |title=Meet The Russian Religious Zealots Who Castrated Themselves To Be Closer To God |url=https://allthatsinteresting.com/skoptsy |access-date=2022-08-20 |website=All That's Interesting |language=en-US}} The sect was ultimately destroyed by Stalin. Some reported that the Skoptsy sect still exists in small numbers, but there is no serious proof. A few individuals still have similar beliefs in Russia.{{Cite web |last1=RBTH |last2=Skripnik |first2=Oleg |date=2016-08-25 |title=The Skoptsy: The story of the Russian sect that maimed for its beliefs |url=https://www.rbth.com/politics_and_society/2016/08/25/the-skoptsy-the-story-of-the-russian-sect-that-maimed-for-its-beliefs_624175 |access-date=2022-08-20 |website=Russia Beyond |language=en-US}}

New Israel came to resemble Protestantism and the Dukhobors much more than Staroizrail, the New Israel movement rejects the Orthodox religious practices and aims to "worship God in spirit and truth".{{Cite web |date=2020-05-16 |title=New Israel: Transformation of a Branch of Russian Religious Dissent |url=https://doukhobor.org/new-israel-transformation-of-a-branch-of-russian-religious-dissent/ |access-date=2022-08-15 |website=Doukhobor Heritage |language=en-CA}} Because many adherents of the movement moved to Uruguay, the movement still exists in Uruguay.{{Cite book |last=Shubin |first=Daniel H. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2X0bbj5SK-kC&dq=New+Israel+Russia+today&pg=PA158 |title=A History of Russian Christianity, Vol. III: The Synodal Era and the Sectarians -- 1725 to 1894 |date=2004 |publisher=Algora Publishing |isbn=978-0-87586-426-6 |language=en}}

Shalaputy were a radical reform movement in Imperial Russia during 1830-1890 AD. They demanded that sinful people should not be allowed to attend Church meetings (Novatianism), and opposed the formalism of Orthodoxy. They also emphasized the Jewish roots of Christianity. The Shalaputs became an evangelical movement made up of peasants who wanted to create their own version of Christianity that opposed Russian Orthodoxy.{{Cite web |title=Russia's Lost Reformation |url=http://www.molokane.org/subbotniki/Aldacushion/Zhuk3.htm |access-date=2022-08-15 |website=www.molokane.org}}

Dukh-i-zhizniki (Spirit and Lifers) are the newest Spiritual Christian movement born from a mixture of ecstatic Spiritual Christian faith tribes who migrated to the Boyle Heights district of Los Angeles from the South Caucasus from 1904 through 1912. Some may classify Dukh-i-zhizniki as a cult due to the prominence of one spiritual leader, Maksim G. Rudomyotkin (1818-1877). Along with partially related tribes in Arizona and Southern California, the organizers debated and negotiated from 1915 to 1928 to combine their spiritual writings and a compromised history into a contested book, which was fimally titled: Kniga solntse, dukh i zhizn (Book of the Sun, Spirit and Life, 1928). This book was placed on the altar tables of all member congregations as a third testament to their Russian Bibles, and defines their new family of faiths. In the 1930s the book was sent to Prygun and Maksimist congregations in Kars province, Turkey, and Soviet Armenia where it was accepted by many who interpreted it differently, divided and continue to divide.{{Cite web |last=Conovaloff |first=Andrei |title=Taxonomy of 3 Spiritual Christian groups: Molokane, Pryguny and Dukh-i-zhizniki |url=http://www.molokane.org/taxonomy/#6. |access-date=2022-08-20 |website=www.molokane.org}}

• Biblists
• Eastern Protestant, encompasses a range of heterogeneous Protestant Christian denominations that developed outside of the Occident from the latter half of the 19th century and keeps some or most of all elements of Eastern Christianity
• Kartanoism
• Quakers, adopting a similar doctrine of divine revelation via inward light
• Radical Pietism
• Shtundists
• Tolstoyan movement

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• Folk religion

{{reflist}}

• {{cite journal|last=Camfield|first=Graham P.|date=October 1990|title=The Pavlovtsy of Khar'kov Province, 1886-1905: Harmless Sectarians or Dangerous Rebels?|journal=The Slavonic and East European Review|publisher=Modern Humanities Research Association and University College London, School of Slavonic and East European Studies|volume=68|issue=4|pages=692–717|jstor=4210447}}
• {{cite journal |url=http://www.berdyaev.com/berdiaev/berd_lib/1916_252a.html |language=en |first=Nikolai |last=Berdyaev |author-link=Nikolai Berdyaev |others=translated by S. Janos |title=Духовное христианство и сектантство в России |trans-title=Spiritual Christianity and Sectarianism in Russia |journal=Russkaya Mysl (Русская мысль, "Russian Thought") |date=1999 |orig-year=1916 |via=berdyaev.com }}
• {{cite book |last=Sulzberger |first=C. L. |year=1977 |title=The Fall of Eagles |location=New York |publisher=Crown Publishers |isbn=0-517-52817-7}}

• [http://www.doukhobor.org Doukhobor Genealogy Website]
• [http://www.molokane.org/taxonomy/ Taxonomy of three Spiritual Christian groups: Molokane, Pryguny and Dukh-i-zhizniki — books, fellowship, holidays, prophets and songs], Molokane website

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