Sports science

{{main|Exercise physiology}}

Sports science can trace its origins back to Ancient Greece. The noted ancient Greek physician Galen (131–201) wrote 87 detailed essays about improving health (proper nutrition), aerobic fitness, and strengthening muscles.{{cite book |last1=Berryman |first1=Jack |last2=Park |first2=Roberta |title=Sport and Exercise Science |date=1992 |publisher=University of Illinois Press |location=Urbana and Chicago |isbn=0-252-01896-6 |pages=14–19 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TVklQ4FX76wC&q=Galen+sports+science&pg=PA14 |access-date=18 January 2019 |archive-date=27 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230227153052/https://books.google.com/books?id=TVklQ4FX76wC&q=Galen+sports+science&pg=PA14 |url-status=live }}{{Cite web |last=Victoria and Albert Museum |first=Online Museum |date=14 July 2011 |title=Health & Medicine |url=http://www.vam.ac.uk/content/articles/h/health-and-medicine-in-the-19th-century/ |access-date=29 April 2022 |website=www.vam.ac.uk |archive-date=22 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220322210608/http://www.vam.ac.uk/content/articles/h/health-and-medicine-in-the-19th-century/ |url-status=live }}

File:Galen detail.jpg

New ideas upon the working and functioning of the human body emerged during the Renaissance as anatomists and physicians challenged the previously known theories.{{Cite journal |last1=Mesquita |first1=Evandro Tinoco |last2=de Souza Júnior |first2=Celso Vale |last3=Ferreira |first3=Thiago Reigado |date=2015 |title=Andreas Vesalius 500 years – A Renaissance that revolutionized cardiovascular knowledge |journal=Revista Brasileira de Cirurgia Cardiovascular |volume=30 |issue=2 |pages=260–265 |doi=10.5935/1678-9741.20150024 |pmc=4462973 |pmid=26107459}} These spread with the implementation of the printed word, the result of Gutenberg's printing press in the 15th century.{{Cite web |title=Background: The Printing Press and the Spread of Ideas {{!}} Encyclopedia.com |url=https://www.encyclopedia.com/history/news-wires-white-papers-and-books/background-printing-press-and-spread-ideas |access-date=29 April 2022 |website=www.encyclopedia.com |archive-date=29 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220429014023/https://www.encyclopedia.com/history/news-wires-white-papers-and-books/background-printing-press-and-spread-ideas |url-status=live }} Allied with this was a large increase in academia in general, universities were forming all around the world.{{Cite web |title=Universities |url=https://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/view/document/obo-9780195399301/obo-9780195399301-0033.xml |access-date=29 April 2022 |website=obo |language=en |archive-date=29 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220429013854/https://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/view/document/obo-9780195399301/obo-9780195399301-0033.xml |url-status=live }} Importantly, these new scholars went beyond the simplistic notions of the early Greek physicians, and shed light upon the complexities of the circulatory, and digestive systems.{{Cite web |title=History of the Stomach and Intestines |url=https://web.stanford.edu/class/history13/earlysciencelab/body/stomachpages/stomachcolonintestines.html#:~:text=Renaissance%20anatomists%20continued%20to%20moralize,both%20spiritual%20and%20natural%20members |access-date=29 April 2022 |website=web.stanford.edu |archive-date=30 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220830011445/https://web.stanford.edu/class/history13/earlysciencelab/body/stomachpages/stomachcolonintestines.html#:~:text=Renaissance%20anatomists%20continued%20to%20moralize,both%20spiritual%20and%20natural%20members |url-status=live }} Furthermore, by the middle of the 19th century, early medical schools (such as the Harvard Medical School, formed 1782) began appearing in the United States, whose graduates went on to assume positions of importance in academia and allied medical research.{{Cite web |last=Flexner |first=Abraham |date=1 June 1910 |title=Medical Education in America |url=https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/1910/06/medical-education-in-america/306088/ |access-date=29 April 2022 |website=The Atlantic |language=en |archive-date=17 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220317210254/https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/1910/06/medical-education-in-america/306088/ |url-status=live }}

Medical journal publications increased significantly in number during this period. In 1898, three articles on physical activity appeared in the first volume of the American Journal of Physiology. Other articles and reviews subsequently appeared in prestigious journals. The German applied physiology publication, Internationale Zeitschrift fur Physiologie einschliesslich Arbeitphysiologie (1929–1940; now known as the European Journal of Applied Physiology and Occupational Physiology), became a significant journal in the field of research.

A number of key figures have made significant contributions to the study of sports science:

• Austin Flint, Jr., (1836–1915) One of the first American pioneer physicians, studied physiological responses to exercise in his influential medical textbooks.{{cite book |last1=McArdle |first1=William |last2=Katch |first2=Frank |last3=Katch |first3=Victor |title=Essentials of Exercise Physiology |date=2006 |publisher=Lippincott Williams & Wilkins |location=United States of America |isbn=0-7817-4991-3 |page=8 |edition=3 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=L4aZIDbmV3oC&q=austin+flint+jr+textbook&pg=PA8 |access-date=18 January 2019 |archive-date=27 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230227153052/https://books.google.com/books?id=L4aZIDbmV3oC&q=austin+flint+jr+textbook&pg=PA8 |url-status=live }}
• Edward Hitchcock, Jr., (1828–1911) Amherst College Professor of Hygiene and Physical Education, devoted his academic career to the scientific study of physical exercise, training, and the body. Coauthored 1860 text on exercise physiology.{{cite web |last1=Sweet |first1=William |title=150 Years Ago: Amherst Established Nation's First College Health Program |url=https://www.amherst.edu/news/news_releases/2011/08/node/337711/ |website=amherst.edu |publisher=Amherst College |access-date=18 January 2019 |archive-date=5 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201205085851/https://www.amherst.edu/news/news_releases/2011/08/node/337711/ |url-status=live }}
• George Wells Fitz, M.D. (1860–1934) Created the first departmental major in Anatomy, Physiology, and Physical Training at Harvard University in 1891.{{cite book |last1=McArdle |first1=William |last2=Katch |first2=Frank |last3=Katch |first3=Victor |title=Essentials of Exercise Physiology |date=2006 |publisher=Lippincott Williams & Wilkins |location=USA |isbn=0-7817-4991-3 |page=9 |edition=3 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=L4aZIDbmV3oC&q=austin+flint+jr+textbook&pg=PA8 |access-date=18 January 2019 |archive-date=27 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230227153052/https://books.google.com/books?id=L4aZIDbmV3oC&q=austin+flint+jr+textbook&pg=PA8 |url-status=live }}
• August Krogh (1874–1949) Won the 1920 Nobel Prize in physiology for discovering the mechanism that controlled capillary blood flow in resting or active muscle.{{cite web |title=August Krogh Biographical |url=https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/medicine/1920/krogh/biographical/ |website=NobelPrize.org |publisher=The Nobel Prize Organization |access-date=18 January 2019 |archive-date=28 March 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190328010819/https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/medicine/1920/krogh/biographical/ |url-status=live }}
• Per-Olof Åstrand (1922–2015) Professor at the Department of Physiology, Karolinska Institute, Stockholm. Wrote a seminal paper which evaluated the physical working capacity of men and women aged 4–33 years.{{cite book |last1=Astrand |first1=Per-Olof |last2=Rodahl |first2=Kaare |last3=Dahl |first3=Hans |last4=Stromme |first4=Sigmund |title=The Textbook of Work Physiology |date=2003 |publisher=McGraw-Hill |location=USA |isbn=0-7360-0140-9 |pages=260–288 |edition=4th |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BC9SiAsUPqsC&q=age&pg=PR5 |access-date=18 January 2019 |archive-date=27 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230227153054/https://books.google.com/books?id=BC9SiAsUPqsC&q=age&pg=PR5 |url-status=live }}

File:Snowboarder during turn while in deep powder-ColorTemp.jpeg leaning into the curve to counter the centrifugal force may be analyzed applying a force diagram from the field of mechanics, a discipline of physics]]

File:Snowboarder in curve with diagram showing vectors for centrifugal force and weight.svgs (red arrows) for weight force (vertical), centrifugal force (horizontal) and resulting force (diagonal). It can be readily seen that the resulting force which the snowboarder's leg muscles have to withstand is much higher than the mere weight force.]]

A notable amount of research in the field of sports science is completed at universities or dedicated research centers.{{Cite journal |last1=Williams |first1=Stephen John |last2=Kendall |first2=Lawrence R. |date=1 August 2007 |title=A profile of sports science research (1983–2003) |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1440244006001873 |journal=Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport |language=en |volume=10 |issue=4 |pages=193–200 |doi=10.1016/j.jsams.2006.07.016 |pmid=17000134 |issn=1440-2440 |access-date=29 April 2022 |archive-date=14 March 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120314174519/http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1440244006001873 |url-status=live |url-access=subscription }} Higher-education degrees in Sports Science or Human Physiology are also becoming increasingly popular, with many universities now offering both undergraduate, postgraduate and distance learning degrees in the discipline.Nuzzo, James L. (2 July 2020). "Growth of Exercise Science in the United States since 2002: A Secondary Data Analysis". Quest. 72 (3): 358–372. doi:10.1080/00336297.2020.1736106. ISSN 0033-6297. Opportunities for graduates in these fields include employment as a Physical Education teacher, Dietician or Nutritionist, Performance Analyst, Sports coach, Sports therapist, Fitness center manager, Sports administrator, Strength and Conditioning specialist, or retail manager of a sports store. Graduates may also be well-positioned to undertake further training to become an accredited Physiotherapist, Exercise Physiologist, Research Scientist and Sports Medical Doctor.

Sports science may also be useful for providing information on the aging body.{{Cite journal |last=Tulle |first=Emmanuelle |date=1 December 2008 |title=Acting your age? Sports science and the ageing body |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0890406508000571 |journal=Journal of Aging Studies |series=The anti-aging enterprise: science, knowledge, expertise, rhetoric and values |language=en |volume=22 |issue=4 |pages=340–347 |doi=10.1016/j.jaging.2008.05.005 |issn=0890-4065 |access-date=29 April 2022 |archive-date=28 November 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231128031522/https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0890406508000571 |url-status=live |url-access=subscription }} Older adults are aware of the benefits of exercise, but many are not performing the exercise needed to maintain these benefits.{{Cite journal |last1=Goggin |first1=N. L. |last2=Morrow |first2=J. |date=2001 |title=Physical Activity Behaviors of Older Adults |journal=Journal of Aging and Physical Activity |volume=9 |pages=58–66 |doi=10.1123/JAPA.9.1.58|s2cid=140851467 }} Sports science provides a means of allowing older people to regain more physical competence without focusing on doing so for the purposes of anti-aging. Sports science can also provide a means of helping older people avoid falls and have the ability to perform daily tasks more independently.

In Australia, the majority of sports science research from 1983 to 2003 was done in laboratories and nearly half of the research was done with sub-elite or elite athletes. Over two-thirds of the research was done regarding four sports: rowing, cycling, athletics, and swimming. In America, sports play a big part of the American identity, however, sports science has slowly been replaced with exercise science.{{Cite journal |last1=Stone |first1=Michael H. |last2=Sands |first2=William A. |last3=Stone |first3=Margaret E. |date=April 2004 |title=The Downfall of Sports Science in the United States |journal=Strength & Conditioning Journal |language=en-US |volume=26 |issue=2 |pages=72–75 |doi=10.1519/00126548-200404000-00014 |issn=1524-1602 |doi-access=free }} Sports science can allow athletes to train and compete more effectively at home and abroad.

José Mourinho, a football manager who won UEFA Champions League twice, reflected his studies of sport science as "sometimes it is difficult to understand if it is sport or if it is science".{{cite news|title=José Mourinho: Talking Porto, Chelsea, Inter and his future management plans|newspaper=The Coaches' Voice, Youtube|date=30 June 2019|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RcfRjlR3lXg |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211222/RcfRjlR3lXg |archive-date=22 December 2021 |url-status=live|page=4m20s–4m50s}}{{cbignore}}

• Journal of Applied Biomechanics
• International Journal of Computer Science in Sport
• Journal of Strength & Conditioning Research
• Journal of Swimming Research
• Sports
• Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise
• Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport

A 2018 study criticized the field of exercise and sports science for insufficient replication studies, limited reporting of both null and trivial results, and insufficient research transparency.{{Cite journal |last1=Halperin |first1=Israel |last2=Vigotsky |first2=Andrew D. |last3=Foster |first3=Carl |last4=Pyne |first4=David B. |date=1 February 2018 |title=Strengthening the Practice of Exercise and Sport-Science Research |journal=International Journal of Sports Physiology and Performance |volume=13 |issue=2 |pages=127–134 |doi=10.1123/ijspp.2017-0322 |issn=1555-0273 |pmid=28787228 |hdl=10072/383414 |s2cid=3695727 |hdl-access=free}} Statisticians have criticized sports science for common use of magnitude-based inference, a controversial statistical method which has allowed sports scientists to extract apparently significant results from noisy data where ordinary hypothesis testing would have found none.{{cite web |url=https://fivethirtyeight.com/features/how-shoddy-statistics-found-a-home-in-sports-research/ |title=How Shoddy Statistics Found A Home In Sports Research |first1=Christie |last1=Aschwanden |author-link=Christie Aschwanden |first2=Mai |last2=Nguyen |date=16 May 2018 |website=FiveThirtyEight |language=en-US |access-date=16 May 2018 |archive-date=21 September 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200921174348/https://fivethirtyeight.com/features/how-shoddy-statistics-found-a-home-in-sports-research/ |url-status=live }}

• Computer science in sport
• Heuristics and sports
• Kinanthropometry
• Kinesiology
• Sports biomechanics
• Sports medicine

{{reflist}}

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• [http://www.sportscience.com Sport Science International Register]
• [http://www.bases.org.uk/newsite/home.asp British Association of Sport and Exercise Sciences]. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170525145654/http://www.bases.org.uk/newsite/home.asp |date=25 May 2017 }}.
• [http://www.acsm.org American College of Sports Medicine]
• [https://web.archive.org/web/20090803130839/http://www.ecss.de/ European College of Sport Science] (archived)
• [http://www.essa.org.au Exercise & Sports Science Australia]
• [http://www.nsca.com/Home/ National Strength & Conditioning Association]

{{Sport}}

{{Authority control}}

Category:Applied sciences