Svante Arrhenius

Arrhenius was born on 19 February 1859 at Vik (which can also be spelled as Wik or Wijk), near Uppsala, Kingdom of Sweden, the son of Svante Gustav and Carolina Thunberg Arrhenius, who were Lutheran.{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Y0c4PgFznyMC&q=%22Christina+Thunberg+Arrhenius%22+%22lutheran%22|isbn = 9780897748995|title = The Who's Who of Nobel Prize Winners, 1901-1995|year = 1996|publisher = Oryx Press}} His father had been a land surveyor for Uppsala University, moving up to a supervisory position. At the age of three, Arrhenius taught himself to read without the encouragement of his parents and, by watching his father's addition of numbers in his account books, became an arithmetical prodigy. In later life, Arrhenius was profoundly passionate about mathematical concepts, data analysis and discovering their relationships and laws.{{fact|date=June 2023}}

At age eight, he entered the local cathedral school, starting in the fifth grade, distinguishing himself in physics and mathematics, and graduating as the youngest and most able student in 1876.{{fact|date=June 2023}}

At the University of Uppsala, he was dissatisfied with the chief instructor of physics and the only faculty member who could have supervised him in chemistry, Per Teodor Cleve, so he left to study at the Physical Institute of the Swedish Academy of Sciences in Stockholm under the physicist Erik Edlund in 1881.{{Cite web |last=Laboratory |first=National High Magnetic Field |title=Svante Arrhenius - Magnet Academy |url=https://nationalmaglab.org/magnet-academy/history-of-electricity-magnetism/pioneers/svante-arrhenius/ |access-date=2024-04-15 |website=nationalmaglab.org |language=en}}

His work focused on the conductivities of electrolytes. In 1884, based on this work, he submitted a 150-page dissertation on electrolytic conductivity to Uppsala for the doctorate. It did not impress the professors, who included Cleve, and he received a fourth-class degree, but upon his defense it was reclassified as third-class. Later, extensions of this very work would earn him the 1903 Nobel Prize in Chemistry.{{cite web|url=https://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemistry/laureates/1903/index.html|title=The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1903|website=www.nobelprize.org|access-date=18 March 2018}}

Arrhenius put forth 56 theses in his 1884 dissertation, most of which would still be accepted today unchanged or with minor modifications. The most important idea in the dissertation was his explanation of the fact that solid crystalline salts disassociate into paired charged particles when dissolved, for which he would win the 1903 Nobel Prize in Chemistry. Arrhenius's explanation was that in forming a solution, the salt disassociates into charged particles that Michael Faraday had given the name ions many years earlier. Faraday's belief had been that ions were produced in the process of electrolysis, that is, an external direct current source of electricity was necessary to form ions. Arrhenius proposed that, even in the absence of an electric current, aqueous solutions of salts contained ions. He thus proposed that chemical reactions in solution were reactions between ions.{{cite book|editor1-last=Harris|editor1-first=William|editor2-last=Levey|editor2-first=Judith|title=The New Columbia Encyclopedia|date=1975|publisher=Columbia University|location=New York City|isbn=978-0-231035-729|page=[https://archive.org/details/newcolumbiaencyc00harr/page/155 155]|edition=4th|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/newcolumbiaencyc00harr/page/155}}{{cite book|editor1-last=McHenry|editor1-first=Charles|title=The New Encyclopædia Britannica|date=1992|publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.|location=Chicago|isbn=978-085-229553-3|page=587|volume=1|edition=15}}{{cite book|editor1-last=Cillispie|editor1-first=Charles|title=Dictionary of Scientific Biography|date=1970|publisher=Charles Scribner's Sons|location=New York City|isbn=978-0-684101-125|pages=296–302|edition=1}}

The dissertation did not impress the professors at Uppsala, but Arrhenius sent it to a number of scientists in Europe who were developing the new science of physical chemistry, such as Rudolf Clausius, Wilhelm Ostwald, and Jacobus Henricus van 't Hoff.

They were far more impressed, and Ostwald even came to Uppsala to persuade Arrhenius to join his research team in Riga. Arrhenius declined, however, as he preferred to stay in Sweden-Norway for a while (his father was very ill and would die in 1885) and had received an appointment at Uppsala.

In an extension of his ionic theory Arrhenius proposed definitions for acids and bases, in 1884. He believed that acids were substances that produce hydrogen ions in solution and that bases were substances that produce hydroxide ions in solution.

File:Arrhenius, Svante August – Lehrbuch der kosmischen Physik, 1903 – BEIC 6781113.jpg

In 1885, Arrhenius next received a travel grant from the Swedish Academy of Sciences, which enabled him to study with Ostwald in Riga (now in Latvia), with Friedrich Kohlrausch in Würzburg, Germany, with Ludwig Boltzmann in Graz, Austria, and with Jacobus Henricus van 't Hoff in Amsterdam.

In 1889, Arrhenius explained the fact that most reactions require added heat energy to proceed by formulating the concept of activation energy, an energy barrier that must be overcome before two molecules will react. The Arrhenius equation gives the quantitative basis of the relationship between the activation energy and the rate at which a reaction proceeds.

In 1891, he became a lecturer at the Stockholm University College (Stockholms Högskola, now Stockholm University), being promoted to professor of physics (with much opposition) in 1895, and rector in 1896.

About 1900, Arrhenius became involved in setting up the Nobel Institutes and the Nobel Prizes. He was elected a member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences in 1901. For the rest of his life, he would be a member of the Nobel Committee on Physics and a de facto member of the Nobel Committee on Chemistry. He used his positions to arrange prizes for his friends (Jacobus van 't Hoff, Wilhelm Ostwald, Theodore Richards) and to attempt to deny them to his enemies (Paul Ehrlich, Walther Nernst, Dmitri Mendeleev).Patrick Coffey, Cathedrals of Science: The Personalities and Rivalries That Made Modern Chemistry, Oxford University Press, 2008, In 1901 Arrhenius was elected to the Swedish Academy of Sciences, against strong opposition. In 1903 he became the first Swede to be awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry.

In 1905, upon the founding of the Nobel Institute for Physical Research at Stockholm, he was appointed rector of the institute, the position where he remained until retirement in 1927.

In 1911, he won the first Willard Gibbs Award.{{cite web|url=http://chicagoacs.org/content.php?page=Willard_Gibbs_Award|title=Willard Gibbs Award |website=chicagoacs.org |access-date=18 March 2018}}

He was elected an International Member of the United States National Academy of Sciences in 1908.{{Cite web |title=Svante A. Arrhenius |url=https://www.nasonline.org/member-directory/deceased-members/20001930.html |access-date=2023-11-27 |website=www.nasonline.org}}

He was elected an Honorary Member of the Netherlands Chemical Society in 1909.[https://en.kncv.nl/kncv/honorary-members Honorary members] - website of the Royal Netherlands Chemical Society

He became a Foreign Member of the Royal Society (ForMemRS) in 1910.{{cite web|url=https://royalsociety.org/about-us/fellowship/fellows/|title=Fellows of the Royal Society|author=Royal Society}}

He was elected an International Member of the American Philosophical Society in 1911.{{Cite web |title=APS Member History |url=https://search.amphilsoc.org/memhist/search?creator=Svante+A.+Arrhenius&title=&subject=&subdiv=&mem=&year=&year-max=&dead=&keyword=&smode=advanced |access-date=2023-11-27 |website=search.amphilsoc.org}}

In 1912, he was elected a Foreign Honorary Member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences{{cite web|title=Book of Members, 1780–2010: Chapter A|url=http://amacad.org:80/publications/BookofMembers/ChapterA.pdf#page=14&zoom=auto,-76,792|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060618085753/http://amacad.org:80/publications/BookofMembers/ChapterA.pdf#page=14&zoom=auto,-76,792|url-status=dead|archive-date=18 June 2006|publisher=American Academy of Arts and Sciences|access-date=25 April 2011}} Page 14, third column, on the right.

In 1919, he became foreign member of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences.{{cite web|url=http://www.dwc.knaw.nl/biografie/pmknaw/?pagetype=authorDetail&aId=PE00004828 |title=Svante August Arrhenius (1859–1927) |publisher=Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences |access-date=19 July 2015}}

File:Arrhenius family grave.jpg]]

Eventually, Arrhenius's theories became generally accepted and he turned to other scientific topics. In 1902, he began to investigate physiological problems in terms of chemical theory. He determined that reactions in living organisms and in the test tube followed the same laws.

In 1904, he delivered at the University of California a course of lectures, the object of which was to illustrate the application of the methods of physical chemistry to the study of the theory of toxins and antitoxins, and which were published in 1907 under the title Immunochemistry.{{sfn|Chisholm|1911}}{{cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/cu31924000273718|title=Immunochemistry; the application of the principles of physical chemistry to the study of the biological antibodies|date=1907|author=Svante Arrhenius|publisher=The Macmillan Company}}

He also turned his attention to geology (the origin of ice ages), astronomy, physical cosmology, and astrophysics, accounting for the birth of the Solar System by interstellar collision.

He considered radiation pressure as accounting for comets, the solar corona, the aurora borealis, and zodiacal light.

He thought life might have been carried from planet to planet by the transport of spores, the theory now known as panspermia.{{sfn|Chisholm|1911}}Arrhenius, S., Worlds in the Making: The Evolution of the Universe. New York, Harper & Row, 1908, He thought of the idea of a universal language, proposing a modification of the English language.

He was a board member for the Swedish Society for Racial Hygiene (founded 1909), which endorsed mendelism at the time, and contributed to the topic of contraceptives around 1910. However, until 1938 information and sale of contraceptives was prohibited in the Kingdom of Sweden. Gordon Stein wrote that Svante Arrhenius was an atheist.{{cite book|title=The encyclopedia of unbelief|volume=1|date=1988|publisher=Prometheus Books|isbn=9780879753078|author=Gordon Stein|page=594|quote=Svante Arrhenius (I859-I927), recipient of the Nobel Prize in chemistry (I903), was a declared atheist and the author of The Evolution of the Worlds and other works on cosmic physics.}}{{cite web|title=Svante Arrhenius|url=http://www.nndb.com/people/875/000092599/|publisher=Soylent Communications|access-date=11 September 2012|author=NNDB.com}} In his last years he wrote both textbooks and popular books, trying to emphasize the need for further work on the topics he discussed. In September 1927, he came down with an attack of acute intestinal catarrh and died on 2 October. He was buried in Uppsala.

He was married twice, first to his former pupil Sofia Rudbeck (1894–1896), with whom he had one son, {{ill|Olof Arrhenius|sv||fr|Olof Vilhelm Arrhenius}}, and then to Maria Johansson (1905–1927), with whom he had two daughters and a son.

Arrhenius was the grandfather of bacteriologist Agnes Wold,{{cite web| url=http://fof.se/tidning/2011/2/mot-bacillskrack-och-gubbvalde |title=Mot bacillskräck och gubbvälde |trans-title=Against bacillus fear and old man rule |date=1 February 2011 |access-date=17 December 2022}} chemist Svante Wold,{{cite web |title=Svante Wold |url=https://www.umu.se/personal/svante-wold/ |website=www.umu.se |language=sv |access-date=31 October 2020 |archive-date=18 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210118180926/https://www.umu.se/personal/svante-wold/ |url-status=dead }} and ocean biogeochemist {{ill|Gustaf Arrhenius (oceanographer)|lt=Gustaf Arrhenius|sv|Gustaf Arrhenius|fr|Gustaf Olof Svante Arrhenius|ru|Аррениус, Густаф Олоф Сванте|zh|古斯塔夫·阿伦尼乌斯}}.{{cite journal |last1=Arrhenius |first1=O. |title=Statistical Investigations in the Constitution of Plant Associations |journal=Ecology |date=January 1923 |volume=4 |issue=1 |pages=68–73 |doi=10.2307/1929275|jstor=1929275 |bibcode=1923Ecol....4...68A }}

In developing a theory to explain the ice ages, Arrhenius, in 1896, was the first to use basic principles of physical chemistry to calculate estimates of the extent to which increases in atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO₂) will increase Earth's surface temperature through the greenhouse effect.{{cite journal |last1=Arrhenius |first1=Svante |title=On the influence of carbonic acid in the air upon the temperature of the ground |journal=The London, Edinburgh, and Dublin Philosophical Magazine and Journal of Science |date=1896 |volume=41 |issue=251 |pages=237–276 |doi=10.1080/14786449608620846|url=http://www.rsc.org/images/Arrhenius1896_tcm18-173546.pdf}}{{cite journal|last1=Arrhenius |first1=Svante|title=On the Influence of Carbonic Acid in the Air Upon the Temperature of the Ground|journal=Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific|year=1897|pages=14|volume=9|issue=54|bibcode = 1897PASP....9...14A |doi = 10.1086/121158 |doi-access=free}} These calculations led him to conclude that human-caused CO₂ emissions, from fossil-fuel burning and other combustion processes, are large enough to cause global warming. This conclusion has been extensively tested, winning a place at the core of modern climate science.[https://www.skepticalscience.com/empirical-evidence-for-co2-enhanced-greenhouse-effect.htm "How do we know more CO2 is causing global warming?"], Skeptical Science, founded by John Cook, the Climate Communication Fellow for the Global Change Institute, University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia[https://www.ipcc.ch/pdf/assessment-report/ar5/wg1/WG1AR5_SPM_FINAL.pdf "Climate Change 2013 – The Physical Science Basis, by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)"], IPCC, 2013: Summary for Policymakers. In: Climate Change 2013: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Stocker, T.F., D. Qin, G.-K. Plattner, M. Tignor, S.K. Allen, J. Boschung, A. Nauels, Y. Xia, V. Bex and P.M. Midgley (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, England and New York, NY. Arrhenius, in this work, built upon the prior work of other famous scientists, including Joseph Fourier, John Tyndall, and Claude Pouillet. Arrhenius wanted to determine whether greenhouse gases could contribute to the explanation of the temperature variation between glacial and inter-glacial periods.Rodhe, Henning, et al. "Svante Arrhenius and the Greenhouse Effect". Ambio, vol. 26, no. 1, 1997, pp. 2–5. {{JSTOR|4314542}}. Arrhenius used infrared observations of the moon – by Frank Washington Very and Samuel Pierpont Langley at the Allegheny Observatory in Pittsburgh – to calculate how much of infrared (heat) radiation is captured by CO₂ and water (H₂O) vapour in Earth's atmosphere. Using 'Stefan's law' (better known as the Stefan–Boltzmann law), he formulated what he referred to as a 'rule'.

In its original form, Arrhenius's rule reads as follows:

::if the quantity of carbonic acid increases in geometric progression, the augmentation of the temperature will increase nearly in arithmetic progression.

Here, Arrhenius refers to CO₂ as carbonic acid (which refers only to the aqueous form H₂CO₃ in modern usage). The following formulation of Arrhenius's rule is still in use today:Martin E. Walter, [http://www.ams.org/notices/201010/rtx101001278p.pdf "Earthquakes and Weatherquakes: Mathematics and Climate Change"], Notices of the American Mathematical Society, Volume 57, Number 10, p. 1278 (November 2010).

::$\backslash Delta\; F\; =\; \backslash alpha\; \backslash ln(C/C\_0)$

where $C\_0$ is the concentration of CO₂ at the beginning (time-zero) of the period being studied (if the same concentration unit is used for both $C$ and $C\_0$, then it doesn't matter which concentration unit is used); $C$ is the CO₂ concentration at end of the period being studied; ln is the natural logarithm (= log base e ({{nowrap|log_e}})); and $\backslash Delta\; F$ is the augmentation of the temperature, in other words the change in the rate of heating Earth's surface (radiative forcing), which is measured in Watts per square meter. Derivations from atmospheric radiative transfer models have found that $\backslash alpha$ (alpha) for CO₂ is 5.35 (± 10%) W/m² for Earth's atmosphere.[http://www.esrl.noaa.gov/gmd/aggi/aggi.html "NOAA Annual Greenhouse Gas Index, Spring 2016"], NOAA Annual Greenhouse Gas Index, NOAA Earth System Research Laboratory, Boulder, CO, James H Butler and Stephen A Montzka

File:Solvay conference, 1922.jpg on chemistry in 1922 in Brussels]]

Based on information from his colleague Arvid Högbom,{{Cite book |last=Weart |first=Spencer R. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5zrjngEACAAJ |title=The Discovery of Global Warming |date=2008 |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0-674-03189-0 |pages=6 |language=en}} Arrhenius was the first person to predict that emissions of carbon dioxide from the burning of fossil fuels and other combustion processes were large enough to cause global warming. In his calculation Arrhenius included the feedback from changes in water vapor as well as latitudinal effects, but he omitted clouds, convection of heat upward in the atmosphere, and other essential factors. His work is currently seen less as an accurate quantification of global warming than as the first demonstration that increases in atmospheric CO₂ will cause global warming, everything else being equal.

File:Svante Arrhenius 01.jpg

Arrhenius's absorption values for CO₂ and his conclusions met criticism by Knut Ångström in 1900, who published the first modern infrared absorption spectrum of CO₂ with two absorption bands, and published experimental results that seemed to show that absorption of infrared radiation by the gas in the atmosphere was already "saturated" so that adding more could make no difference. Arrhenius replied strongly in 1901 (Annalen der Physik), dismissing the critique altogether. He touched on the subject briefly in a technical book titled Lehrbuch der kosmischen Physik (1903). He later wrote Världarnas utveckling (1906) (German: Das Werden der Welten [1907], English: [https://archive.org/details/worldsinmakinge01arrhgoog Worlds in the Making] [1908]) directed at a general audience, where he suggested that the human emission of CO₂ would be strong enough to prevent the world from entering a new ice age, and that a warmer earth would be needed to feed the rapidly increasing population:

:: "To a certain extent the temperature of the earth's surface, as we shall presently see, is conditioned by the properties of the atmosphere surrounding it, and particularly by the permeability of the latter for the rays of heat." (p. 46)

:: "That the atmospheric envelopes limit the heat losses from the planets had been suggested about 1800 by the great French physicist Fourier. His ideas were further developed afterwards by Pouillet and Tyndall. Their theory has been styled the hot-house theory, because they thought that the atmosphere acted after the manner of the glass panes of hot-houses." (p. 51)

:: "If the quantity of carbonic acid [ CO₂ + H₂O → H₂CO₃ (carbonic acid) ] in the air should sink to one-half its present percentage, the temperature would fall by about 4°; a diminution to one-quarter would reduce the temperature by 8°. On the other hand, any doubling of the percentage of carbon dioxide in the air would raise the temperature of the earth's surface by 4°; and if the carbon dioxide were increased fourfold, the temperature would rise by 8°." (p. 53)

:: "Although the sea, by absorbing carbonic acid, acts as a regulator of huge capacity, which takes up about five-sixths of the produced carbonic acid, we yet recognize that the slight percentage of carbonic acid in the atmosphere may by the advances of industry be changed to a noticeable degree in the course of a few centuries." (p. 54)

:: "Since, now, warm ages have alternated with glacial periods, even after man appeared on the earth, we have to ask ourselves: Is it probable that we shall in the coming geological ages be visited by a new ice period that will drive us from our temperate countries into the hotter climates of Africa? There does not appear to be much ground for such an apprehension. The enormous combustion of coal by our industrial establishments suffices to increase the percentage of carbon dioxide in the air to a perceptible degree." (p. 61)

:: "We often hear lamentations that the coal stored up in the earth is wasted by the present generation without any thought of the future, and we are terrified by the awful destruction of life and property which has followed the volcanic eruptions of our days. We may find a kind of consolation in the consideration that here, as in every other case, there is good mixed with the evil. By the influence of the increasing percentage of carbonic acid in the atmosphere, we may hope to enjoy ages with more equable and better climates, especially as regards the colder regions of the earth, ages when the earth will bring forth much more abundant crops than at present, for the benefit of rapidly propagating mankind." (p. 63)

File:1922 Svante Arrhenius.jpg portrait by Auguste Léon, 1922]]

At this time, the accepted consensus explanation is that, historically, orbital forcing has set the timing for ice ages, with CO₂ acting as an essential amplifying feedback.{{Cite web|url=https://scripps.ucsd.edu/programs/keelingcurve/2014/06/20/how-do-co2-levels-relate-to-ice-ages-and-sea-level/|title=How do CO2 levels relate to ice ages and sea-level?|last=Monroe|first=Rob|date=2014-06-20|website=The Keeling Curve|language=en-US|access-date=2019-12-19}}{{cite journal |last1=Ganopolski |first1=A. |last2=Calov |first2=R. |title=The role of orbital forcing, carbon dioxide and regolith in 100 kyr glacial cycles |journal=Climate of the Past |date=2011 |volume=7 |issue=4 |pages=1415–1425 |doi=10.5194/cp-7-1415-2011|bibcode=2011CliPa...7.1415G |url=http://www.clim-past.net/7/1415/2011/cp-7-1415-2011.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.clim-past.net/7/1415/2011/cp-7-1415-2011.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live|doi-access=free }} However, CO₂ releases since the industrial revolution have increased CO₂ to a level not found since 10 to 15 million years ago, when the global average surface temperature was up to {{convert|6|C-change|0}} warmer than now and almost all ice had melted, raising world sea-levels to about 100 feet (30 m.) higher than today's.{{Cite web|url=https://www.climatecentral.org/news/the-last-time-co2-was-this-high-humans-didnt-exist-15938|title=The Last Time CO2 Was This High, Humans Didn't Exist|last=Andrew Freedman|website=www.climatecentral.org|language=en|access-date=2019-12-19}}

Arrhenius estimated based on the CO₂ levels at his time, that reducing levels by 0.62–0.55 would decrease temperatures by 4–5 °C (Celsius) and an increase of 2.5 to 3 times of CO₂ would cause a temperature rise of 8–9 °C in the Arctic.{{cite web |last1=Graham |first1=Steve |title=Svante Arrhenius : Arrhenius' Carbon Dioxide Research |url=https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/features/Arrhenius/arrhenius_2.php |publisher=Nasa Earth Observatory |language=en |date=18 January 2000}} In his book Worlds in the Making he described the "hot-house" theory of the atmosphere.{{cite web |last1=Graham |first1=Steve |title=Svante Arrhenius : Hot House Theory |url=https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/features/Arrhenius/arrhenius_3.php |publisher=Nasa Earth Observatory |language=en |date=18 January 2000}}

• 1884, Recherches sur la conductibilité galvanique des électrolytes, doctoral dissertation, Stockholm, Royal publishing house, P. A. Norstedt & Söner, 155 pages.
• 1896a, Ueber den Einfluss des Atmosphärischen Kohlensäurengehalts auf die Temperatur der Erdoberfläche, in the Proceedings of the Royal Swedish Academy of Science, Stockholm 1896, Volume 22, I N. 1, pages 1–101.
• 1896b, [http://www.rsc.org/images/Arrhenius1896_tcm18-173546.pdf On the Influence of Carbonic Acid in the Air upon the Temperature of the Ground], London, Edinburgh, and Dublin Philosophical Magazine and Journal of Science (fifth series), April 1896. vol 41, pages 237–275.
• 1901a, Ueber die Wärmeabsorption durch Kohlensäure, Annalen der Physik, Vol 4, 1901, pages 690–705.
• 1901b, Über Die Wärmeabsorption Durch Kohlensäure Und Ihren Einfluss Auf Die Temperatur Der Erdoberfläche. Abstract of the proceedings of the Royal Academy of Science, 58, 25–58.
• Arrhenius, Svante. [https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=mdp.39015080300869;view=1up;seq=503 Die Verbreitung des Lebens im Weltenraum]. Die Umschau, Frankfurt a. M., 7, 1903, 481–486.
• {{Cite book|title=Lehrbuch der kosmischen Physik|volume=1|publisher=Hirzel|location=Leipzig|year=1903|language=de|url=https://gutenberg.beic.it/webclient/DeliveryManager?pid=6781113}}
• {{Cite book|title=Lehrbuch der kosmischen Physik|volume=2|publisher=Hirzel|location=Leipzig|year=1903|language=de|url=https://gutenberg.beic.it/webclient/DeliveryManager?pid=6779391}}
• 1906, Die vermutliche Ursache der Klimaschwankungen, Meddelanden från K. Vetenskapsakademiens Nobelinstitut, Vol 1 No 2, pages 1–10
• 1908, [https://archive.org/details/worldsinmakingev00arrhrich Das Werden der Welten] (Worlds in the making; the evolution of the universe), Academic Publishing House, Leipzig, 208 pages.

{{Portal|Astronomy|Stars|Outer space|Solar System|Schools|Science}}

• Arrhenius law
• Arrhenius plot
• History of climate change science
• Néel relaxation theory, also called Néel–Arrhenius theory
• Viscosity models for mixtures
• James Croll
• Eunice Newton Foote
• George Perkins Marsh
• Milutin Milanković
• Greta Thunberg – climate activist and distant relative of Arrhenius{{cite book |last1=Ernman |first1=Beata |last2=Ernman |first2=Malena |last3=Thunberg |first3=Greta |last4=Thunberg |first4=Svante |title=Our House is on Fire: Scenes of a Family and a Planet in Crisis |date=17 March 2020 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DkfCDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA152 |isbn=9780525507376 |page=152|publisher=Penguin }}

{{Reflist}}

• {{EB1911|wstitle=Arrhenius, Svante August|volume=2|page=648}}

• {{cite encyclopedia | last=Snelders | first=H. A. M. | title=Arrhenius, Svante August | encyclopedia=Dictionary of Scientific Biography | volume=1 | pages=296–301 | publisher=Charles Scribner's Sons | location=New York | date=1970 | isbn=978-0-684-10114-9}}
• {{cite book |last=Crawford |first=Elisabeth T. |title=Arrhenius: from ionic theory to the greenhouse effect |location=Canton, MA |publisher=Science History Publications |isbn=978-0-88135-166-8|year=1996 }}
• {{cite book |first=Patrick |last=Coffey |title=Cathedrals of Science: The Personalities and Rivalries That Made Modern Chemistry |publisher=Oxford University Press |date=2008 |isbn=978-0-19-532134-0}}

{{Commons category}}

{{wikisource author}}

• {{Gutenberg author|id=49834}}
• [http://www.royalsoc.ac.uk/page.asp?id=5971 Svante Arrhenius (1859–1927)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071111233610/http://www.royalsoc.ac.uk/page.asp?id=5971 |date=11 November 2007 }}
• [http://adsabs.harvard.edu//full/seri/Obs../0050//0000363.000.html Obs 50 (1927) 363] – Obituary (one paragraph)
• [http://adsabs.harvard.edu//full/seri/PASP./0039//0000385.000.html PASP 39 (1927) 385] – Obituary (one paragraph)
• "On the influence of Carbonic Acid in the Air upon the Temperature of the Ground", Arrhenius, 1896, online and analyzed on [https://www.bibnum.education.fr/sciencesdelaterre/climatologie/de-l-influence-de-l-acide-carbonique-de-l-air-sur-la-temperature-terr BibNum] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220816173245/https://www.bibnum.education.fr/sciencesdelaterre/climatologie/de-l-influence-de-l-acide-carbonique-de-l-air-sur-la-temperature-terr |date=16 August 2022 }} [click 'à télécharger' for English analysis]
• {{PM20}}
• "[https://www.aip.org/initialconditions/episode-2-enter-anthropocene-climate-science-early-20th-century Enter the Anthropocene: Climate Science in the Early 20th Century]," podcast about Arrhenius, Guy Callendar, and Charles David Keeling, Initial Conditions, Episode 2
• {{Nobelprize}} including the Nobel Lecture, 11 December 1903 Development of the Theory of Electrolytic Dissociation
• [https://web.archive.org/web/20100902054559/http://www.iva.se/upload/Verksamhet/H%C3%B6gtidssammankomst/Minnesskrift%202008.pdf A Tribute to the Memory of Svante Arrhenius (1859–1927) – a scientist ahead of his time], published in 2008 by the Royal Swedish Academy of Engineering Sciences

{{Nobel Prize in Chemistry Laureates 1901-1925}}

{{1903 Nobel Prize winners}}

{{Swedish Nobel Laureates}}

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Category:1859 births

Category:1927 deaths

Category:People from Uppsala Municipality

Category:Nobel laureates in Chemistry

Category:Swedish physical chemists

Category:20th-century Swedish astronomers

Category:Panspermia

Category:Academic staff of Stockholm University

Category:Uppsala University alumni

Category:Academic staff of Riga Technical University

Category:Members of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences

Category:Members of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences

Category:Members of the Royal Academy of Belgium

Category:Foreign members of the Royal Society

Category:Foreign associates of the National Academy of Sciences

Category:Corresponding members of the Saint Petersburg Academy of Sciences

Category:Honorary members of the USSR Academy of Sciences

Category:Swedish Nobel laureates

Category:Fellows of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences

Category:Members of the Royal Society of Sciences and Letters in Gothenburg

Category:Burials at Uppsala old cemetery

Category:Members of the Göttingen Academy of Sciences and Humanities

Category:Members of the Royal Society of Sciences in Uppsala

Category:Recipients of Franklin Medal

Category:International members of the American Philosophical Society