Temple of Bel

File:PALMYRA Tempio di Baal particolare del fregio con sfilata degli dei - GAR - 6-057.jpg

The temple was built on a tell with stratification indicating human occupation that goes back to the third millennium BC. The area was occupied in pre-Roman periods with a former temple that is usually referred to as "the first temple of Bel" and "the Hellenistic temple". The walls of the temenos and propylaea were constructed in the late first and the first half of the second century AD. The names of three Greeks who worked on the construction of the temple of Bel are known through inscriptions, including an architect named Alexandras ({{langx|el|Αλεξάνδρας}}).{{cite book |last=Stoneman |first=Richard |date=1994 |title=Palmyra and Its Empire: Zenobia's Revolt Against Rome |publisher=University of Michigan Press |location=Ann Arbor, MI |isbn=9780472083152 |page=54 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8kLFfE1qPhIC&pg=PA54}}{{cite book |last=Alcock |first=Susan E. |date=1997 |title=The Early Roman Empire in the East |publisher=University of Michigan Press |location=Ann Arbor, MI |isbn=9781900188524 |page=157 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DxQMAQAAMAAJ}} However, many Palmyrenes adopted Greco-Roman names and native citizens with the name Alexander are attested in the city.{{cite book |last=Yon |first=Jean-Baptiste |date=2002 |title=Les notables de Palmyre |publisher=Institut français d'archéologie du Proche-Orient |isbn=9782912738196 |pages=10, 59 }}

The Temple of Bel was converted into a Christian church during the Byzantine Era.{{cite book |last=Browning |first=Iain |date=1979 |title=Palmyra |publisher=Noyes Press |isbn=9780815550549 |page=[https://archive.org/details/palmyra0000brow/page/168 168] |quote=Like the Temple of Bel, the Baal Shamin was converted into a church during the Byzantine period. |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/palmyra0000brow/page/168 }} Parts of the structure were modified by Arabs in 1132 which preserved the structure and converted the Temple into a mosque. The enormous temple courtyard (approx. 200 x 200 meters) held mud-brick houses among the ruins, and served as a fortified citadel for the village of Palmyra (known as Tadmur during the 1100s). The mosque in the temple proper and the dwellings remained in use until the 1920s when Franco-Syrian archaeological missions cleared the temple grounds of its postclassical elements.{{cite web|last1=Frances Terpak and Peter Louis Bonfitto|title=Temple of Bel|url=http://www.getty.edu/research/exhibitions_events/exhibitions/palmyra/index.html|website=The Legacy of Ancient Palmyra|publisher=The Getty Research Institute|access-date=10 February 2017}}{{cite news|last1=Yan|first1=Holly|title=How ISIS' demolition of a Syrian temple impacts the world|url=http://edition.cnn.com/2015/09/01/middleeast/syria-palmyra-temple-consequences/|access-date=1 February 2016|work=CNN|date=1 September 2015}} Most of the Corinthian columns of the inner colonnades still showed pedestals where the statues of the benefactors stood. The temple was aligned along the eastern end of the Great Colonnade at Palmyra.

File:Columns in the inner court of the Bel Temple Palmyra Syria.JPG

The temple showed a remarkable synthesis of ancient Near Eastern and Greek cultures. The temple remains lay inside a large precinct lined by porticos. It had a rectangular shape and was oriented north–south. It was based on a paved court surrounded by a massive {{convert|205|m|ft|adj=on}} long wall with a propylaeum. On a podium in the middle of the court was the actual temple building. The cella was entirely surrounded by a prostyle of Corinthian columns, only interrupted on the long side by an entrance gate with large steps leading from the court. The cella was unique in the fact that it had two inner sanctuaries, the north and south adytons, dedicated as the shrines of Bel and other local deities. The northern chamber was known for a bas-relief carving of the seven planets known to the ancients surrounded by the twelve signs of the Zodiac and the carvings of a procession of camels and veiled women.{{cite web |title=Temple of Bel |publisher=Syrian Embassy in the United States |url=http://www.syrianembassy.us/Aboutsyria/temple_of_bel.htm |access-date=31 August 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090715065316/http://www.syrianembassy.us/Aboutsyria/temple_of_bel.htm |archive-date=15 July 2009}} The cella was lit by two pairs of windows cut high in the two long walls. In three corners of the building stairwells could be found that led up to rooftop terraces.

In the court there were the remains of a basin, an altar, a dining hall, and a building with niches. And in the northwest corner lay a ramp along which sacrificial animals were led into the temple area. There were three monumental gateways, of which the entry was through the west gate.

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{{Further|Destruction of cultural heritage by ISIL}}

File:Gate of the fortified Temple of Bel Palmyra Syria.jpg

Syria's Director of Antiquities Maamoun Abdul Karim stated that ISIL was looking for treasures and "stores of gold" in the city.{{cite web |author= |date=19 August 2015 |title=Syrian archaeologist 'killed in Palmyra' by IS militants |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-33984006 |access-date=10 September 2015}}

On 30 August 2015, the Associated Press reported that ISIS had partially demolished the temple by explosives, citing eyewitness accounts.{{cite news |last=Westall |first=Sylvia |date=30 August 2015 |title=Islamic State destroys part of Syria's Temple of Bel – monitors |work=Reuters UK |url=http://uk.reuters.com/article/uk-mideast-crisis-syria-bel-idUKKCN0QZ0XO20150830|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151212174150/http://uk.reuters.com/article/uk-mideast-crisis-syria-bel-idUKKCN0QZ0XO20150830|url-status=dead|archive-date=December 12, 2015}}{{cite web |author= |date=30 August 2015 |title=СМИ: боевики ИГ подорвали Храм Бэла на территории сирийской Пальмиры |language=ru |work=RIA Novosti |url=http://ria.ru/world/20150830/1217983802.html |access-date=10 September 2015}} The bricks and columns were reported as lying on the ground and only one wall was reported as remaining, according to a Palmyra resident.{{cite web |author= |date=31 Aug 2015 |title=Syria's Palmyra Temple of Bel 'severely damaged' by IS |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-34103994 |access-date=10 September 2015}}{{cite web |author= |date=31 August 2015 |title=IS Partially Destroys Temple Of Bel – Reports |work=Sky News |url=http://news.sky.com/story/1544154/is-partially-destroys-temple-of-bel-reports |access-date=10 September 2015}} The damage was also attested by the Syrian Observatory for Human Rights.{{cite news |author= |title=Activists: ISIL damages ancient temple in Syria's Palmyra |url=https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/world/2015/08/30/isil-damages-palmyra-temple/71428468/ |work=USA Today |agency=Associated Press |date=30 August 2015 |access-date=10 September 2015}}

Syria's antiquities chief Maamoun Abdulkarim later stated that although there was an explosion within the temple's perimeter, "the basic structure is still standing".{{cite web |author= |date=31 August 2015 |title=Palmyra's Temple of Bel 'still standing' |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-34110717 |access-date=10 September 2015}} However, these reports were proved to be incorrect.

On August 31, 2015 the United Nations confirmed the temple's destruction after reviewing satellite imagery, "We can confirm destruction of the main building of the Temple of Bel as well as a row of columns in its immediate vicinity" reported by the United Nations Institute for Training and Research (UNITAR).{{cite news |last1=Barnard |first1=Anne |author-link=Anne Barnard |last2=Saad |first2=Hwaida |author2-link=Hwaida Saad |date=2015-08-31 |title=Palmyra Temple Was Destroyed by ISIS, U.N. Confirms |newspaper=The New York Times |issn=0362-4331 |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2015/09/01/world/middleeast/isis-militants-severely-damage-temple-of-baal-in-palmyra.html |access-date=2015-09-01}}{{cite web |author= |date=1 September 2015 |title=Palmyra's Temple of Bel destroyed, says UN |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-34111092 |access-date=10 September 2015}} The BBC issued a video report showing the satellite images and the destruction described by Einar Bjorgo, manager of UN Satellite Imaging (UNOSAT UNITAR).{{cite web |author= |date=1 September 2015 |title=Satellite images show Palmyra temple destruction |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-34110717 |access-date=10 September 2015}}

The main entrance arch survived the destruction of the temple. The Institute for Digital Archaeology proposed that replicas of this arch be installed in Trafalgar Square, London and Times Square, New York City.{{cite news|last1=Gayle|first1=Damien|title=Palmyra arch that survived Isis to be replicated in London and New York|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/dec/28/palmyra-temple-bel-arch-survived-isis-syria-london-new-york|work=The Guardian|date=28 December 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160109093409/http://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/dec/28/palmyra-temple-bel-arch-survived-isis-syria-london-new-york|archive-date=9 January 2016}} It was later decided that instead of the temple's main entrance, the replica would be of part of the Monumental Arch.{{cite news|last1=Richardson|first1=Nigel|title=Why the Arch of Triumph of Palmyra is being recreated in London - 1,800 years after it was built|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2016/04/08/why-the-arch-of-triumph-of-palmyra-is-being-recreated-in-london/|work=The Telegraph|date=8 April 2016|access-date=8 April 2016}}

Following the recapture of Palmyra by the Syrian Army in March 2016, director of antiquities Maamoun Abdelkarim stated that the Temple of Bel, along with the Temple of Baalshamin and the Monumental Arch, will be rebuilt using the surviving remains.{{cite news |last=Shaheen |first=Kareem |title=Syrian regime forces retake 'all of Palmyra' from Isis |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2016/mar/27/syrian-regime-forces-retake-all-of-palmyra-from-isis |newspaper=The Guardian |date=27 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160327092726/http://www.theguardian.com/world/2016/mar/27/syrian-regime-forces-retake-all-of-palmyra-from-isis |archive-date=27 March 2016 |access-date=10 November 2022}}{{cite news |last1=Shaheen |first1=Kareem |last2=Graham-Harrison |first2=Emma |title=Palmyra will rise again. We have to send a message to terrorists |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2016/mar/26/palmyra-restoration-isis-syria |newspaper=The Guardian |date=26 March 2016 |access-date=10 November 2022}} ISIL recaptured the city on 11 December,{{cite news |url=https://www.alaraby.co.uk/english/news/2016/12/11/islamic-state-recaptures-palmyra-after-syria-army-withdrawal |title=Islamic State recaptures Palmyra after Syria army withdrawal |date=11 December 2016 |work=The New Arab |access-date=10 November 2022}} but the Syrian Army retook it on 2 March 2017.{{cite news |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/middle-east/isis-palmyra-syria-driven-out-second-time-islamic-state-ancient-roman-ruins-assad-executions-a7607351.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220526/https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/middle-east/isis-palmyra-syria-driven-out-second-time-islamic-state-ancient-roman-ruins-assad-executions-a7607351.html |archive-date=26 May 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live |title=Isis driven out of ancient Syrian city of Palmyra for second time |first=Lizzie |last=Dearden |date=2 March 2017 |newspaper=The Independent}}

In July 2017, the French company "Art Graphique et Patrimoine" travelled to Palmyra and scanned the Temple's rubble in order to create a plan for its restoration.{{cite news |url=http://dgam.gov.sy/index.php?d=314&id=2310 |title=Scientific Cooperation Project with (Art Graphique & Patrimoine Co.) |access-date=27 July 2017 |date=17 July 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200919115617/http://dgam.gov.sy/index.php?d=314&id=2310 |archive-date=19 September 2020 |work=Syrian Arab Republic - Ministry of Culture}}

The destruction of the Temple of Bel coincided with a boom in digital documentation and reconstruction technologies, and motivated a number of research and digital heritage organizations to engage in reconstruction projects. As the temple had been a popular tourist destination in Syria for many years, a great many images existed which portrayed the temple from many angles and viewpoints, making it an ideal candidate for photogrammetric reconstruction. Wissam Wahbeh and Stephen Nebiker, Researchers at the University of Applied Sciences and Arts Northwestern Switzerland demonstrated this capability, created a 3D model using tourist images along with proprietary data held by photogrammetry pioneer Gabriele Fangi.{{Cite journal |last1=Wahbeh |first1=W. |last2=Nebiker |first2=S. |last3=Fangi |first3=G. |date=2016-06-06 |title=Combining Public Domain and Professional Panoramic Imagery for the Accurate and Dense 3D Reconstruction of the Destroyed Bel Temple in Palmyra |url=https://isprs-annals.copernicus.org/articles/III-5/81/2016/ |journal=ISPRS Annals of the Photogrammetry, Remote Sensing and Spatial Information Sciences |language=English |volume=III-5 |pages=81–88 |doi=10.5194/isprs-annals-III-5-81-2016 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2016ISPAnIII5...81W |issn=2194-9042}} The New Palmyra Project organized the donation of over 3,000 high resolution images and published the collection as open data on Flickr.com, which is ideal for reconstruction as the platform preserves image metadata enabling complex matching of images from multiple sources.{{Cite journal |last1=Agarwal |first1=Sameer |last2=Furukawa |first2=Yasutaka |last3=Snavely |first3=Noah |last4=Simon |first4=Ian |last5=Curless |first5=Brian |last6=Seitz |first6=Steven M. |last7=Szeliski |first7=Richard |date=October 2011 |title=Building Rome in a day |url=https://dl.acm.org/doi/10.1145/2001269.2001293 |journal=Communications of the ACM |language=en |volume=54 |issue=10 |pages=105–112 |doi=10.1145/2001269.2001293 |issn=0001-0782}} A comprehensive version, featuring full resolution reconstructions of reliefs, frescoes, and finely detailed decorative features, along with the raw data, was later published by UC San Diego Data Scientist Scott McAvoy{{Cite journal |title=Open Heritage 3D {{!}} Data | date=2020 |url=https://openheritage3d.org/project.php?id=zjnn-wx58 |doi=10.26301/zjnn-wx58 | author1=Scott McAvoy | last2=University Of California | first2=San Diego Library | publisher=OpenHeritage3D }} in the hopes of encouraging continued collaboration informing future reconstruction efforts.{{Cite web |title=Destroyed ancient temple restored for virtual exploration with RealityCapture. |url=https://www.capturingreality.com/temple-of-bel-in-palmyra-as-vr |access-date=2024-11-18 |website=CapturingReality |language=en}}

File:Temple of Bel, Palmyra 05.jpg|Remains of columns and walls at the courtyard.

File:Temple of Bel, Palmyra 02.jpg|The Temple's destroyed cella.

File:Bassel-bel-3.jpg|Digital reconstruction of the Temple of Bel from the New Palmyra project.

• List of Ancient Roman temples

{{Reflist|30em}}

• Becker, Jeffrey A. [https://www.khanacademy.org/humanities/ancient-art-civilizations/palmyra/a/temple-of-bel-palmyra Temple of Bel]. Smarthistory
• {{Citation |last=Gates |first=Charkes |date=2003 |title=Ancient cities: the archaeology of urban life in the Ancient Near East and Egypt, Greece and Rome |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-415-01895-1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=490NAAAAQAAJ&q=temple+of+bel+palmyra&pg=PA390}}
• {{Citation |last=Kaizer |first=Ted |date=2002 |title=The religious life of Palmyra: a study of the social patterns of worship in the Roman period |publisher=Franz Steiner Verlag |isbn=978-3-515-08027-9 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KvZ7K5KWbuoC&q=temple+of+bel+palmyra&pg=PA67}}
• {{Citation |last=Cremin |first=Aedeen |date=2007 |title=Archaeologica: The World's Most Significant Sites and Cultural Treasures |publisher=Frances Lincoln Ltd. |isbn=978-0-7112-2822-1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=A0llBlzF6UgC&q=temple+of+bel+palmyra&pg=PA187}}

{{Commons category|Temple of Baal in Palmyra|Temple of Bel}}

• [https://web.archive.org/web/20090715065316/http://www.syrianembassy.us/Aboutsyria/temple_of_bel.htm Syrian embassy site with history of the site]
• [http://www.traveladventures.org/continents/asia/templeofbel.shtml Travel site with images]
• [https://www.khanacademy.org/humanities/ancient-art-civilizations/palmyra/a/temple-of-bel-palmyra Temple of Bel, Palmyra] Khan Academy

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{{DEFAULTSORT:Temple Of Bel}}

Category:1st-century Roman temples

Category:Ancient Roman buildings and structures in Syria

Bel

Category:Buildings and structures in Palmyra

Category:Former religious buildings and structures in Syria

Category:Conversion of non-Christian religious buildings and structures into churches

Category:Religious buildings and structures converted into mosques

Category:Buildings and structures destroyed by ISIL

Category:Buildings and structures demolished in 2015

Category:Destroyed temples

Category:32

Category:Buildings and structures completed in the 1st century

Category:Persecution of pagans in the late Roman Empire

Category:Temples in Syria

Category:Baal

Category:Destroyed Roman temples