Testing effect

File:Anki flashcard question and answer math.gifs are an application of the testing effect. Here, flashcard software Anki is used to review a mathematical formula through active recall. First, only the question is displayed. Then the answer is displayed too, for verification.]]The testing effect (also known as retrieval practice, active recall, practice testing, or test-enhanced learning){{cite journal|last1=Roediger|first1=H. L.|last2=Butler|first2=A. C.|date=2011|title=The critical role of retrieval practice in long-term retention|url=http://psych.wustl.edu/memory/Roddy%20article%20PDF%27s/Roediger%20%26%20Butler%20%282011%29_TCS.pdf|journal=Trends in Cognitive Sciences|volume=15|issue=1|pages=20–27|doi=10.1016/j.tics.2010.09.003|pmid=20951630|hdl-access=free|hdl=10818/24277|s2cid=11014168|access-date=2015-08-19|archive-date=2017-12-15|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171215055319/http://psych.wustl.edu/memory/Roddy%20article%20PDF%27s/Roediger%20%26%20Butler%20%282011%29_TCS.pdf|url-status=dead}}{{cite journal|last1=Dunlosky|first1=J.|last2=Rawson|first2=K. A.|last3=Marsh|first3=E. J.|last4=Nathan|first4=M. J.|last5=Willingham|first5=D. T.|date=2013|title=Improving students' learning with effective learning techniques: Promising directions from cognitive and educational psychology|url=https://semanticscholar.org/paper/fafd4fb0b8d1c3a11a5a5d0ce70e7e47e7460fe8|journal=Psychological Science in the Public Interest|volume=14|issue=1|pages=4–58|doi=10.1177/1529100612453266|pmid=26173288|s2cid=220053697}}{{Cite web|title=Remember!|url=http://www.retrievalpractice.org|access-date=2016-03-12|website=Retrieval Practice: A Powerful Strategy to Improve Learning}} suggests long-term memory is increased when part of the learning period is devoted to retrieving information from memory.{{cite book|author=E. Bruce Goldstein|title=Cognitive Psychology: Connecting Mind, Research and Everyday Experience|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9TUIAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA231|publisher=Cengage Learning|isbn=978-1-133-00912-2|page=231|date=2010-06-21}} It is different from the more general practice effect, defined in the APA Dictionary of Psychology as "any change or improvement that results from practice or repetition of task items or activities."{{cite APA Dictionary |title=Practice effect |shortlink=practice-effect |access-date=2021-12-04 }}

Cognitive psychologists are working with educators to look at how to take advantage of tests—not as an assessment tool, but as a teaching tool {{Cite journal|last1=Bae|first1=Christine L.|last2=Therriault|first2=David J.|last3=Redifer|first3=Jenni L.|date=2018|title=Investigating the testing effect: Retrieval as a characteristic of effective study strategies|journal=Learning and Instruction|volume=60|pages=206–214|doi=10.1016/j.learninstruc.2017.12.008|s2cid=149067724|issn=0959-4752}} since testing prior knowledge is more beneficial for learning when compared to only reading or passively studying material (even more so when the test is more challenging for memory).{{cite web|date=9 December 2014|title=The Testing Effect|url=http://www.revunote.com/resources/the-testing-effect/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807181828/http://www.revunote.com/resources/the-testing-effect/|url-status=usurped|archive-date=August 7, 2012|work=Revunote}}

History

Before much experimental evidence had been collected, the utility of testing was already evident to some perceptive observers including Francis Bacon who discussed it as a learning strategy as early as 1620.{{Cite book|last=Bacon|first=Francis|title=The New Organon|publisher=CAMBRIDGE TEXTS IN THE HISTORY OF PHILOSOPHY|year=2000|isbn=0-511-01154-7|editor=Jardine|location=[Place of publication not identified]|pages=143|oclc=|editor2=Scott}}

"Hence if you read a piece of text through twenty times, you will not learn it by heart so easily as if you read it ten times while attempting to recite it from time to time and consulting the text when your memory fails."

Towards the end of the 17th Century, John Locke made a similar observation regarding the importance of repeated retrieval for retention in his 1689 book "An Essay Concerning Human Understanding".

"But concerning the ideas themselves, it is easy to remark, that those that are oftenest refreshed (amongst which are those that are conveyed into the mind by more ways than one) by a frequent return of the objects or actions that produce them, fix themselves best in the memory, and remain clearest and longest there."{{Cite book |last=Locke |first=John |url=https://www.gutenberg.org/files/10615/10615-h/10615-h.htm#chap2.10 |title=An Essay Concerning Humane Understanding. |publisher=Project Gutenberg |year=1690 |chapter=}}

Towards the end of the 19th century, Harvard psychologist William James described the testing effect in the following section of his 1890 book "The Principles of Psychology"

"A curious peculiarity of our memory is that things are impressed better by active than by passive repetition. I mean that in learning (by heart, for example), when we almost know the piece, it pays better to wait and recollect by an effort from within, than to look at the book again. If we recover the words in the former way, we shall probably know them the next time; if in the latter way, we shall very likely need the book once more." {{Cite book|last=James|first=William|title=The Principles of Psychology Vol 1|publisher=Holt|year=1890|location=New York|pages=Chapter 16 pg 686}}

The first documented empirical studies on the testing effect were published in 1909 by Edwina E. Abbott {{cite journal|last1=Abbott|first1=Edwina|date=1909|title=On the analysis of the factors of recall in the learning process|url=https://insights.ovid.com/psychological-monographs-general-applied/pmga/1909/11/010/analysis-factor-recall-learning-process/5/00006828|journal=Psychological Monographs: General and Applied|volume=11|issue=1|pages=159–177|doi=10.1037/h0093018|via=Ovid}}{{Cite book|last1=Larsen|first1=Douglas P.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KW2rAAAAQBAJ&q=Test-enhanced+learning&pg=PA443|title=Test-enhanced learning|last2=Butler|first2=Andrew C.|date=2013|journal=In Oxford Textbook of Medical Education|isbn=9780199652679|editor-last=Walsh, K.|pages=443–452}} which was followed up by research into the transfer and retrieval of prior learning.{{Cite web|title=Experiments as the relative efficiency of men and women in memory & reasoning.|url=https://psycnet.apa.org/record/1926-03355-001|access-date=2021-12-06|website=psycnet.apa.org|language=en}}{{Cite journal|last=Köhler|first=Wolfgang|date=1943|title=Review of The Psychology of Human Learning; An Introduction|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1417396|journal=The American Journal of Psychology|volume=56|issue=3|pages=455–460|doi=10.2307/1417396|jstor=1417396|issn=0002-9556|url-access=subscription}} In his 1932 book Psychology of Study, C. A. Mace said:

"On the matter of sheer repetitive drill there is another principle of the highest importance: Active repetition is very much more effective than passive repetition. ... there are two ways of introducing further repetitions. We may re-read this list: this is passive repetition. We may recall it to mind without reference to the text before forgetting has begun: this is active repetition. It has been found that when acts of reading and acts of recall alternate, i.e., when every reading is followed by an attempt to recall the items, the efficiency of learning and retention is enormously enhanced." {{cite book|last1=Mace|first1=C. A.|title=The Psychology of Study|date=1932|publisher=R.M. McBride & Co.|location=New York|page=39}}

Studies in retrieval practice started in 1987 by John. L Richards, who published his findings in a newspaper in New York. {{Citation needed|date=December 2021}} Much of the confusion around early studies could have been due to constrained approaches not accounting for context.{{Cite journal|last1=Barnett|first1=Susan M.|last2=Ceci|first2=Stephen J.|date=2002|title=When and where do we apply what we learn? A taxonomy for far transfer|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12081085/|journal=Psychological Bulletin|volume=128|issue=4|pages=612–637|doi=10.1037/0033-2909.128.4.612|issn=0033-2909|pmid=12081085}} In more recent research with contributions from Hal Pashler, Henry Roediger and many others, testing knowledge can produce better learning,{{Cite journal|last=Brown|first=Alan S.|date=1976|title=Review of Information Processing and Cognition: The Loyola Symposium|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1421430|journal=The American Journal of Psychology|volume=89|issue=2|pages=357–361|doi=10.2307/1421430|jstor=1421430|issn=0002-9556|url-access=subscription}}{{cite journal|last1=Carrier|first1=M.|last2=Pashler|first2=H.|date=1992|title=The influence of retrieval on retention|journal=Memory & Cognition|volume=20|issue=6|pages=632–642|doi=10.3758/bf03202713|pmid=1435266|doi-access=free|s2cid=15893469}}{{Cite journal|last=Izawa|first=Chizuko|date=1971-05-01|title=The test trial potentiating model|url=https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0022-2496%2871%2990012-5|journal=Journal of Mathematical Psychology|language=en|volume=8|issue=2|pages=200–224|doi=10.1016/0022-2496(71)90012-5|issn=0022-2496|url-access=subscription}} transfer,{{cite journal|last1=McDaniel|first1=M. A.|last2=Roediger|first2=H. L.|last3=McDermott|first3=K. B.|year=2007|title=Generalizing test-enhanced learning from the laboratory to the classroom|journal=Psychonomic Bulletin & Review|volume=14|issue=2|pages=200–206|doi=10.3758/bf03194052|pmid=17694901|doi-access=free}} and retrieval {{Cite journal|last1=Roediger|first1=Henry L.|last2=Karpicke|first2=Jeffrey D.|date=September 2006|title=The Power of Testing Memory: Basic Research and Implications for Educational Practice|url=http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1111/j.1745-6916.2006.00012.x|journal=Perspectives on Psychological Science|language=en|volume=1|issue=3|pages=181–210|doi=10.1111/j.1745-6916.2006.00012.x|pmid=26151629|s2cid=2184171|issn=1745-6916|url-access=subscription}} results when compared to other forms of study that often use recognition {{Cite journal|last1=Kanak|first1=N. Jack|last2=Neuner|first2=Sharon D.|date=1970|title=Associative symmetry and item {{sic|nolink=y|reason=error in source|availablity}} as a function of five methods of paired-associate acquisition.|url=http://doi.apa.org/getdoi.cfm?doi=10.1037/h0029975|journal=Journal of Experimental Psychology|language=en|volume=86|issue=2|pages=288–295|doi=10.1037/h0029975|issn=0022-1015|url-access=subscription}} like re-reading {{Cite journal|last1=Karpicke|first1=Jeffrey D.|last2=Butler|first2=Andrew C.|last3=Roediger|first3=Henry L.|date=2009|title=Metacognitive strategies in student learning: do students practise retrieval when they study on their own?|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19358016/|journal=Memory (Hove, England)|volume=17|issue=4|pages=471–479|doi=10.1080/09658210802647009|issn=1464-0686|pmid=19358016|s2cid=36234279}} or highlighting.{{Cite journal|last=Peterson|first=Sarah E.|date=1991-12-01|title=The cognitive functions of underlining as a study technique|url=https://doi.org/10.1080/19388079209558078|journal=Reading Research and Instruction|volume=31|issue=2|pages=49–56|doi=10.1080/19388079209558078|issn=0886-0246|url-access=subscription}}

Retrieval practice

In recent research, storage strength (how well an item is learned) and retrieval strength (how well an item can be retrieved)Bjork, Robert A., and Elizabeth L. Bjork. "A new theory of disuse and an old theory of stimulus fluctuation." _From learning processes to cognitive processes: Essays in honor of William K. Estes_ 2 (1992): 35-67. have become separate measures for retrieval practice.{{Cite journal|last1=Kornell|first1=Nate|last2=Bjork|first2=Robert A.|last3=Garcia|first3=Michael A.|date=2011-08-01|title=Why tests appear to prevent forgetting: A distribution-based bifurcation model|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0749596X11000416|journal=Journal of Memory and Language|language=en|volume=65|issue=2|pages=85–97|doi=10.1016/j.jml.2011.04.002|issn=0749-596X|url-access=subscription}} Retrieval strength (also known as recall accuracy) is typically higher for restudied words when tested immediately after practice, whereas tested words were higher as time moves on.{{Cite journal|last1=van den Broek|first1=Gesa S. E.|last2=Segers|first2=Eliane|last3=Takashima|first3=Atsuko|last4=Verhoeven|first4=Ludo|date=2014-10-03|title=Do testing effects change over time? Insights from immediate and delayed retrieval speed|url=https://doi.org/10.1080/09658211.2013.831455|journal=Memory|volume=22|issue=7|pages=803–812|doi=10.1080/09658211.2013.831455|issn=0965-8211|pmid=23998337|hdl=2066/129864|s2cid=23919228|hdl-access=free}} This suggests using tests is more beneficial for long-term memory and retrieval{{cite journal|last1=Roediger|first1=H. L.|last2=Karpicke|first2=J. D.|date=2006|title=Test-Enhanced Learning: Taking Memory Tests Improves Long-Term Retention|url=http://psych.wustl.edu/memory/Roddy%20article%20PDF%27s/Roediger%20%26%20Karpicke%20%282006%29_PsychSci.pdf|journal=Psychological Science|volume=17|issue=3|pages=249–255|doi=10.1111/j.1467-9280.2006.01693.x|pmid=16507066|access-date=17 August 2015|s2cid=16067307|archive-date=13 May 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150513043900/http://psych.wustl.edu/memory/Roddy%20article%20PDF%27s/Roediger%20%26%20Karpicke%20%282006%29_PsychSci.pdf|url-status=dead}}{{cite journal|last1=Toppino|first1=Thomas C.|last2=Cohen|first2=Michael S.|date=1 January 2009|title=The Testing Effect and the Retention Interval|journal=Experimental Psychology|volume=56|issue=4|pages=252–257|doi=10.1027/1618-3169.56.4.252|pmid=19439397|s2cid=2736571 }} which some authors believe is due to limited retrieval success during practice{{cite journal|last1=Halamish|first1=Vered|last2=Bjork|first2=Robert A.|date=2011|title=When does testing enhance retention? A distribution-based interpretation of retrieval as a memory modifier.|journal=Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition|volume=37|issue=4|pages=801–812|citeseerx=10.1.1.1033.8690|doi=10.1037/a0023219|pmid=21480751}} supporting the idea that tests are learning opportunities.{{Cite journal|last1=Foos|first1=Paul W.|last2=Fisher|first2=Ronald P.|date=1988|title=Using tests as learning opportunities.|url=http://doi.apa.org/getdoi.cfm?doi=10.1037/0022-0663.80.2.179|journal=Journal of Educational Psychology|language=en|volume=80|issue=2|pages=179–183|doi=10.1037/0022-0663.80.2.179|issn=0022-0663|url-access=subscription}}

Functional magnetic resonance imaging suggests that retrieval practice strengthens subsequent retention of learning through a "dual action" affecting the anterior and posterior hippocampus regions of the brain.{{Cite journal|last1=Wiklund-Hörnqvist|first1=Carola|last2=Stillesjö|first2=Sara|last3=Andersson|first3=Micael|last4=Jonsson|first4=Bert|last5=Nyberg|first5=Lars|date=January 2021|title=Retrieval practice facilitates learning by strengthening processing in both the anterior and posterior hippocampus|journal=Brain and Behavior|language=en|volume=11|issue=1|pages=e01909|doi=10.1002/brb3.1909|issn=2162-3279|pmc=7821628|pmid=33094555}} This could support findings that individual differences in personality traits or with working memory capacity, don't seem to have any negative impacts of the testing effect,{{Cite journal|last1=Bertilsson|first1=Frida|last2=Stenlund|first2=Tova|last3=Wiklund-Hörnqvist|first3=Carola|last4=Jonsson|first4=Bert|date=March 2021|title=Retrieval Practice: Beneficial for All Students or Moderated by Individual Differences?|journal=Psychology Learning & Teaching|language=en|volume=20|issue=1|pages=21–39|doi=10.1177/1475725720973494|s2cid=229459300|issn=1475-7257|doi-access=free}} with a greater impact for lower ability individuals.{{Cite journal|last1=Agarwal|first1=Pooja K.|last2=Finley|first2=Jason R.|last3=Rose|first3=Nathan S.|last4=Roediger|first4=Henry L.|date=2017-07-03|title=Benefits from retrieval practice are greater for students with lower working memory capacity|url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/09658211.2016.1220579|journal=Memory|language=en|volume=25|issue=6|pages=764–771|doi=10.1080/09658211.2016.1220579|pmid=27531308|s2cid=3649863|issn=0965-8211|url-access=subscription}}

Despite some doubting knowledge transfer across a topic when testing{{Cite journal|last=McKenzie|first=Gary R.|date=1972-01-01|title=Some Effects of Frequent Quizzes on Inferential Thinking|url=https://doi.org/10.3102/00028312009002231|journal=American Educational Research Journal|language=en|volume=9|issue=2|pages=231–240|doi=10.3102/00028312009002231|s2cid=144657297|issn=0002-8312|url-access=subscription}} with some studies showing contradictory evidence{{cite journal|last1=Mulligan|first1=N. W.|last2=Picklesimer|first2=M|year=2016|title=Attention and the testing effect|journal=Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition|volume=42|issue=6|pages=938–950|doi=10.1037/xlm0000227|pmid=26618913}} suggesting recognition was better than recall,{{Cite journal|last1=Postman|first1=Leo|last2=Jenkins|first2=William O.|last3=Postman|first3=Dorothy L.|date=1948|title=An Experimental Comparison of Active Recall and Recognition|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1418315|journal=The American Journal of Psychology|volume=61|issue=4|pages=511–519|doi=10.2307/1418315|jstor=1418315|issn=0002-9556|url-access=subscription}} inferential thinking has been supported{{cite journal|last1=Butler|first1=A.C.|year=2010|title=Repeated testing produces superior transfer of learning relative to repeated studying|journal=Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition|volume=36|issue=5|pages=1118–1133|doi=10.1037/a0019902|pmid=20804289}} and the transfer of learning is at its strongest with application of theory to practice, inference questions, medical education,{{Cite journal|last=Dobson|first=John L.|date=June 2013|title=Retrieval practice is an efficient method of enhancing the retention of anatomy and physiology information|url=https://www.physiology.org/doi/10.1152/advan.00174.2012|journal=Advances in Physiology Education|language=en|volume=37|issue=2|pages=184–191|doi=10.1152/advan.00174.2012|pmid=23728136|s2cid=16807647 |issn=1043-4046|url-access=subscription}} and problems involving medical diagnosis.{{Cite journal|last1=Pan|first1=Steven C.|last2=Rickard|first2=Timothy C.|date=July 2018|title=Transfer of test-enhanced learning: Meta-analytic review and synthesis.|journal=Psychological Bulletin|language=en|volume=144|issue=7|pages=710–756|doi=10.1037/bul0000151|pmid=29733621|s2cid=13682371|issn=1939-1455|doi-access=free}} The transfer can occur across domains, paradigms,{{Cite journal|last1=Needham|first1=D. R.|last2=Begg|first2=I. M.|date=1991|title=Problem-oriented training promotes spontaneous analogical transfer: memory-oriented training promotes memory for training|journal=Memory & Cognition|volume=19|issue=6|pages=543–557|doi=10.3758/bf03197150|issn=0090-502X|pmid=1758301|s2cid=24200377|doi-access=free}} and help retention for material not on a final test.{{Cite journal|last1=Chan|first1=Jason C. K.|last2=McDermott|first2=Kathleen B.|last3=Roediger|first3=Henry L.|date=2006|title=Retrieval-induced facilitation: initially nontested material can benefit from prior testing of related material|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17087573/|journal=Journal of Experimental Psychology. General|volume=135|issue=4|pages=553–571|doi=10.1037/0096-3445.135.4.553|issn=0096-3445|pmid=17087573}} Using retrieval practices also produces less forgetting than studying and restudying{{cite journal|last1=Toppino|first1=T. C.|last2=Cohen|first2=M. S.|year=2009|title=The testing effect and the retention interval: Questions and answers|journal=Experimental Psychology|volume=56|issue=4|pages=252–257|doi=10.1027/1618-3169.56.4.252|pmid=19439397|s2cid=2736571 }} while helping to identify misconceptions and errors{{Cite journal|last=Nelson|first=Adin|date=2021-04-02|title=Additional Benefits of Incorporating Retrieval Practice Into Teaching Rounds|url=https://meridian.allenpress.com/jgme/article/13/2/293/464050/Additional-Benefits-of-Incorporating-Retrieval|journal=Journal of Graduate Medical Education|language=en|volume=13|issue=2|pages=293|doi=10.4300/JGME-D-20-01478.1|issn=1949-8357|pmc=8054592|pmid=33897968}}{{Cite journal|last1=Butler|first1=Andrew C.|last2=Roediger|first2=Henry L.|date=2008|title=Feedback enhances the positive effects and reduces the negative effects of multiple-choice testing|journal=Memory & Cognition|volume=36|issue=3|pages=604–616|doi=10.3758/mc.36.3.604|issn=0090-502X|pmid=18491500|s2cid=14811598|doi-access=free}}{{Cite journal|last1=Bangert-Drowns|first1=Robert L.|last2=Kulik|first2=Chen-Lin C.|last3=Kulik|first3=James A.|last4=Morgan|first4=MaryTeresa|date=1991-06-01|title=The Instructional Effect of Feedback in Test-Like Events|url=https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543061002213|journal=Review of Educational Research|language=en|volume=61|issue=2|pages=213–238|doi=10.3102/00346543061002213|s2cid=146582125|issn=0034-6543|url-access=subscription}} with effects lasting years.{{Cite web|title=Test-enhanced learning in the classroom: Long-term improvements from quizzing.|url=https://psycnet.apa.org/buy/2011-26204-001|access-date=2021-12-07|website=psycnet.apa.org|language=en}}

= Repeated testing =

Repeated testing have shown statistical significance{{Cite journal|last=Estes|first=W. K.|date=1955|title=Statistical theory of distributional phenomena in learning|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/13254976/|journal=Psychological Review|volume=62|issue=5|pages=369–377|doi=10.1037/h0046888|issn=0033-295X|pmid=13254976}} and results getting better than repeated studying{{Cite journal|last=Butler|first=Andrew C.|date=2010|title=Repeated testing produces superior transfer of learning relative to repeated studying|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20804289/|journal=Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition|volume=36|issue=5|pages=1118–1133|doi=10.1037/a0019902|issn=1939-1285|pmid=20804289}}{{cite journal|last1=Roediger|first1=H. L.|last2=Karpicke|first2=J. D.|date=2006|title=Test-Enhanced Learning: Taking Memory Tests Improves Long-Term Retention|url=http://psych.wustl.edu/memory/Roddy%20article%20PDF%27s/Roediger%20%26%20Karpicke%20%282006%29_PsychSci.pdf|journal=Psychological Science|volume=17|issue=3|pages=249–255|doi=10.1111/j.1467-9280.2006.01693.x|pmid=16507066|access-date=17 August 2015|s2cid=16067307|archive-date=13 May 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150513043900/http://psych.wustl.edu/memory/Roddy%20article%20PDF%27s/Roediger%20%26%20Karpicke%20%282006%29_PsychSci.pdf|url-status=dead}} which could be due to testing creating multiple retrieval routes for memory,{{Cite journal|last=Martin|first=E.|date=1968|title=Stimulus meaningfulness and paired-associate transfer: an encoding variability hypothesis|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/4879426/|journal=Psychological Review|volume=75|issue=5|pages=421–441|doi=10.1037/h0026301|issn=0033-295X|pmid=4879426}} allowing individuals to form lasting connections between items,{{Cite journal|last1=McDaniel|first1=Mark A.|last2=Fisher|first2=Ronald P.|date=1991-04-01|title=Tests and test feedback as learning sources|url=https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0361-476X%2891%2990037-L|journal=Contemporary Educational Psychology|language=en|volume=16|issue=2|pages=192–201|doi=10.1016/0361-476X(91)90037-L|issn=0361-476X|url-access=subscription}} or blocking information together{{Cite journal|last1=Schneider|first1=Vivian I.|last2=Healy|first2=Alice F.|last3=Bourne|first3=Lyle E.|date=2002-02-01|title=What Is Learned under Difficult Conditions Is Hard to Forget: Contextual Interference Effects in Foreign Vocabulary Acquisition, Retention, and Transfer|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0749596X0192813X|journal=Journal of Memory and Language|language=en|volume=46|issue=2|pages=419–440|doi=10.1006/jmla.2001.2813|issn=0749-596X|url-access=subscription}} which can help with memory retention{{cite journal|last1=Karpicke|first1=J. D.|last2=Blunt|first2=J. R.|year=2011|title=Retrieval practice produces more learning than elaborate studying with concept of mapping|journal=Science|volume=331|issue=6018|pages=772–775|doi=10.1126/science.1199327|pmid=21252317|s2cid=206530594|doi-access=free}} and schema recall.{{Cite journal|last1=Zaromb|first1=Franklin M.|last2=Roediger|first2=Henry L.|date=2010-12-01|title=The testing effect in free recall is associated with enhanced organizational processes|url=https://doi.org/10.3758/MC.38.8.995|journal=Memory & Cognition|language=en|volume=38|issue=8|pages=995–1008|doi=10.3758/MC.38.8.995|pmid=21156864|s2cid=30462402|issn=1532-5946|url-access=subscription}} Using spaced repetition has shown an increase on the testing effect{{cite journal|last1=Mulligan|first1=N. W.|last2=Peterson|first2=D. J.|year=2015|title=The negative testing and negative generation effects are eliminated by delay|journal=Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition|volume=41|issue=4|pages=1014–1025|doi=10.1037/xlm0000070|pmid=25329076}}{{Cite journal|last=Jacoby|first=Larry L.|date=1978-12-01|title=On interpreting the effects of repetition: Solving a problem versus remembering a solution|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0022537178903936|journal=Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior|language=en|volume=17|issue=6|pages=649–667|doi=10.1016/S0022-5371(78)90393-6|issn=0022-5371|url-access=subscription}} with a greater impact with a delay in testing,{{Cite journal|last=Modigliani|first=Vito|date=1976|title=Effects on a later recall by delaying initial recall.|url=http://doi.apa.org/getdoi.cfm?doi=10.1037/0278-7393.2.5.609|journal=Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Learning and Memory|language=en|volume=2|issue=5|pages=609–622|doi=10.1037/0278-7393.2.5.609|issn=0096-1515|url-access=subscription}} but the delay could lead to forgetting{{Cite journal|last=Chan|first=Jason C.K.|date=2009|title=When does retrieval induce forgetting and when does it induce facilitation? Implications for retrieval inhibition, testing effect, and text processing|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0749596X09000461|journal=Journal of Memory and Language|language=en|volume=61|issue=2|pages=153–170|doi=10.1016/j.jml.2009.04.004}} or retrieval-induced forgetting.

Delaying the test after a session can have a greater impact{{cite journal|last1=Karpicke|first1=J. D.|last2=Roediger|first2=H. L.|year=2008|title=The critical importance of retrieval for learning|journal=Science|volume=319|issue=5865|pages=966–968|bibcode=2008Sci...319..966K|citeseerx=10.1.1.408.8947|doi=10.1126/science.1152408|pmid=18276894|s2cid=32693}} so studying in the day should be tested in the evening with a delay, but studying in the evening should have an immediate test due the effect sleep has on memory.{{Cite journal|last1=Kroneisen|first1=Meike|last2=Kuepper-Tetzel|first2=Carolina E.|date=March 2021|title=Using Day and Night – Scheduling Retrieval Practice and Sleep|url=http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/1475725720965363|journal=Psychology Learning & Teaching|language=en|volume=20|issue=1|pages=40–57|doi=10.1177/1475725720965363|s2cid=226345154|issn=1475-7257|url-access=subscription}} Despite divided attention being thought to decrease the testing effect, if it is from a different medium it could enhance the effect.

The rate of forgetting is not affected by the speed{{Cite web|title=Normal forgetting of verbal lists as a function of their degree of learning.|url=https://content.apa.org/record/1984-05823-001|access-date=2021-12-06|website=content.apa.org|language=en}} or degree of learning{{Cite journal|last=Underwood|first=Benton J.|date=1964-04-01|title=Degree of learning and the measurement of forgetting|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0022537164800281|journal=Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior|language=en|volume=3|issue=2|pages=112–129|doi=10.1016/S0022-5371(64)80028-1|issn=0022-5371|url-access=subscription}} but by the type of practice involved.

= Test difficulty =

According to the retrieval effort hypothesis, "difficult but successful retrievals are better for memory than easier successful retrievals" which supports the idea of finding a desirable difficulty within the retrieval practice considering our memory biases. Learning a language was better when using unfamiliar words compared to familiar words, supporting higher difficulty resulting in greater learning.{{Cite journal|last=Battig|first=William F.|date=1961|title=Review of Meaningfulness and Verbal Learning|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1419690|journal=The American Journal of Psychology|volume=74|issue=4|pages=656–657|doi=10.2307/1419690|jstor=1419690|issn=0002-9556|url-access=subscription}} The difficulty relates to the likelihood of forgetting{{Cite journal|last=Glover|first=John A.|date=1989|title=The "testing" phenomenon: Not gone but nearly forgotten.|url=http://doi.apa.org/getdoi.cfm?doi=10.1037/0022-0663.81.3.392|journal=Journal of Educational Psychology|language=en|volume=81|issue=3|pages=392–399|doi=10.1037/0022-0663.81.3.392|issn=0022-0663|url-access=subscription}} as the harder it is to remember, the more likely you are to remember and retain the information{{cite journal|last1=Pyc|first1=Mary A.|last2=Rawson|first2=Katherine A.|date=May 2009|title=Testing the retrieval effort hypothesis: Does greater difficulty correctly recalling information lead to higher levels of memory?|url=http://www2.kent.edu/CAS/Psychology/resources/cml/upload/Pyc-Rawson-2009-JML-pdf.pdf|journal=Journal of Memory and Language|volume=60|issue=4|pages=437–447|doi=10.1016/j.jml.2009.01.004|s2cid=73651886|access-date=2015-05-15|archive-date=2015-05-18|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150518093434/http://www2.kent.edu/CAS/Psychology/resources/cml/upload/Pyc-Rawson-2009-JML-pdf.pdf|url-status=dead}} supporting the notion that more effort is required for longer lasting retention{{Cite journal|last1=Gardiner|first1=F. M.|last2=Craik|first2=F. I.|last3=Bleasdale|first3=F. A.|date=1973|title=Retrieval difficulty and subsequent recall|journal=Memory & Cognition|volume=1|issue=3|pages=213–216|doi=10.3758/BF03198098|issn=0090-502X|pmid=24214547|s2cid=38135672|doi-access=free}} similar to the depth of processing at encoding.{{Cite journal|last1=Craik|first1=Fergus I. M.|last2=Tulving|first2=Endel|date=1975|title=Depth of processing and the retention of words in episodic memory.|url=http://doi.apa.org/getdoi.cfm?doi=10.1037/0096-3445.104.3.268|journal=Journal of Experimental Psychology: General|language=en|volume=104|issue=3|pages=268–294|doi=10.1037/0096-3445.104.3.268|s2cid=7896617 |issn=1939-2222|url-access=subscription}} Therefore, lack of effort from students studying could be a factor that reduces its efficiency.

Increased difficulty shows decreased initial performance but increased performance on harder tests in the future, so retention and transfer suffer less when training is difficult. Even unsuccessful retrieval can enhance learning,{{Cite journal|last1=Kornell|first1=Nate|last2=Hays|first2=Matthew Jensen|last3=Bjork|first3=Robert A.|date=2009|title=Unsuccessful retrieval attempts enhance subsequent learning|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19586265/|journal=Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition|volume=35|issue=4|pages=989–998|doi=10.1037/a0015729|issn=0278-7393|pmid=19586265}} as creating the thought helps with retention{{Cite journal|last1=Slamucka|first1=Norman J.|last2=Fevreiski|first2=Jacobo|date=1983-04-01|title=The generation effect when generation fails|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0022537183901123|journal=Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior|language=en|volume=22|issue=2|pages=153–163|doi=10.1016/S0022-5371(83)90112-3|issn=0022-5371|url-access=subscription}} due to the generation effect.{{Cite journal|last1=Rosner|first1=Zachary A.|last2=Elman|first2=Jeremy A.|last3=Shimamura|first3=Arthur P.|date=2013|title=The generation effect: activating broad neural circuits during memory encoding|journal=Cortex; A Journal Devoted to the Study of the Nervous System and Behavior|volume=49|issue=7|pages=1901–1909|doi=10.1016/j.cortex.2012.09.009|issn=1973-8102|pmc=3556209|pmid=23079490}}{{Cite journal|last=Izawa|first=Chizuko|date=1970|title=Optimal potentiating effects and forgetting-prevention effects of tests in paired-associate learning.|url=http://doi.apa.org/getdoi.cfm?doi=10.1037/h0028541|journal=Journal of Experimental Psychology|language=en|volume=83|issue=2, Pt.1|pages=340–344|doi=10.1037/h0028541|issn=0022-1015|url-access=subscription}} Like with processing time, it is the qualitative nature of the information that determines retention.

Getting feedback helps with learning{{Cite journal|last=Rowland|first=Christopher A.|date=2014|title=The effect of testing versus restudy on retention: a meta-analytic review of the testing effect|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25150680/|journal=Psychological Bulletin|volume=140|issue=6|pages=1432–1463|doi=10.1037/a0037559|issn=1939-1455|pmid=25150680|s2cid=30042631 }} but finding a desirable difficulty for the test combined with feedback{{Cite journal|last1=Kubik|first1=Veit|last2=Gaschler|first2=Robert|last3=Hausman|first3=Hannah|date=March 2021|title=PLAT 20(1) 2021: Enhancing Student Learning in Research and Educational Practice: The Power of Retrieval Practice and Feedback|journal=Psychology Learning & Teaching|language=en|volume=20|issue=1|pages=1–20|doi=10.1177/1475725720976462|s2cid=232170985 |issn=1475-7257|doi-access=}} is more beneficial than studying or testing without feedback.{{cite journal|last1=Agarwal|display-authors=etal|year=2007|title=Examining the Testing Effect with Open- and Closed-Book Tests|journal=Applied Cognitive Psychology|volume=22|issue=7|pages=861–876|citeseerx=10.1.1.545.4826|doi=10.1002/acp.1391}}{{Cite journal|last1=Larsen|first1=Douglas P.|last2=Butler|first2=Andrew C.|last3=Roediger|first3=Henry L.|date=2009|title=Repeated testing improves long-term retention relative to repeated study: a randomised controlled trial|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19930508/|journal=Medical Education|volume=43|issue=12|pages=1174–1181|doi=10.1111/j.1365-2923.2009.03518.x|issn=1365-2923|pmid=19930508|s2cid=2446794}} The Read, Recite, Review method{{Cite book|last=Nilson|first=Linda B.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8mFfDAAAQBAJ&dq=Teaching+at+Its+Best%3A+A+Research-Based+Resource+for+College+Instructors&pg=PP15|title=Teaching at Its Best: A Research-Based Resource for College Instructors|date=2016-07-18|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=978-1-119-09632-0|language=en}} has been proposed as a method to combine retrieval practice with feedback.{{Cite journal|last1=McDaniel|first1=Mark A.|last2=Howard|first2=Daniel C.|last3=Einstein|first3=Gilles O.|date=2009|title=The read-recite-review study strategy: effective and portable|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19320858/|journal=Psychological Science|volume=20|issue=4|pages=516–522|doi=10.1111/j.1467-9280.2009.02325.x|issn=1467-9280|pmid=19320858|s2cid=8841135}}

= Test format =

The test format doesn't seem to impact the results as it is the process of retrieval that aids the learning{{Cite journal|last1=Yang|first1=Chunliang|last2=Potts|first2=Rosalind|last3=Shanks|first3=David R.|date=2018-04-11|title=Enhancing learning and retrieval of new information: a review of the forward testing effect|journal=npj Science of Learning|volume=3|issue=1|page=8|doi=10.1038/s41539-018-0024-y|issn=2056-7936|pmc=6220253|pmid=30631469|bibcode=2018npjSL...3....8Y}} but transfer-appropriate processing suggests that if the encoding of information is through a format similar to the retrieval format then the test results are likely to be higher, with a mismatch causing lower results.{{Cite journal|last1=Yang|first1=Chunliang|last2=Luo|first2=Liang|last3=Vadillo|first3=Miguel A.|last4=Yu|first4=Rongjun|last5=Shanks|first5=David R.|date=April 2021|title=Testing (quizzing) boosts classroom learning: A systematic and meta-analytic review.|url=http://doi.apa.org/getdoi.cfm?doi=10.1037/bul0000309|journal=Psychological Bulletin|language=en|volume=147|issue=4|pages=399–435|doi=10.1037/bul0000309|pmid=33683913|s2cid=232158956|issn=1939-1455|url-access=subscription}} However, when short-answer tests or essays are used {{Cite journal|last1=Roediger|first1=Henry L.|last2=Agarwal|first2=Pooja K.|last3=McDaniel|first3=Mark A.|last4=McDermott|first4=Kathleen B.|date=2011|title=Test-enhanced learning in the classroom: Long-term improvements from quizzing.|url=http://doi.apa.org/getdoi.cfm?doi=10.1037/a0026252|journal=Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied|language=en|volume=17|issue=4|pages=382–395|doi=10.1037/a0026252|pmid=22082095|issn=1939-2192|url-access=subscription}}{{Cite journal|last1=McDaniel|first1=Mark A.|last2=Anderson|first2=Janis L.|last3=Derbish|first3=Mary H.|last4=Morrisette|first4=Nova|date=2007-07-01|title=Testing the testing effect in the classroom|url=https://doi.org/10.1080/09541440701326154|journal=European Journal of Cognitive Psychology|volume=19|issue=4–5|pages=494–513|doi=10.1080/09541440701326154|s2cid=102343760|issn=0954-1446|url-access=subscription}} greater gains in results are seen when compared to multiple-choice test {{Cite journal|last1=Agarwal|first1=Pooja K.|last2=Bain|first2=Patrice M.|last3=Chamberlain|first3=Roger W.|date=2012-09-01|title=The Value of Applied Research: Retrieval Practice Improves Classroom Learning and Recommendations from a Teacher, a Principal, and a Scientist|url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-012-9210-2|journal=Educational Psychology Review|language=en|volume=24|issue=3|pages=437–448|doi=10.1007/s10648-012-9210-2|s2cid=143750450|issn=1573-336X|url-access=subscription}}

Cued recall can make retrieval easier{{Cite journal|last1=Carpenter|first1=Shana K.|last2=Pashler|first2=Harold|last3=Vul|first3=Edward|date=2006|title=What types of learning are enhanced by a cued recall test?|journal=Psychonomic Bulletin & Review|volume=13|issue=5|pages=826–830|doi=10.3758/bf03194004|issn=1069-9384|pmid=17328380|s2cid=14721245|doi-access=free}} as it reduces the required retrieval strength from an individual which can help short term results,{{Cite journal|last1=Carpenter|first1=Shana K.|last2=DeLosh|first2=Edward L.|date=2006|title=Impoverished cue support enhances subsequent retention: support for the elaborative retrieval explanation of the testing effect|journal=Memory & Cognition|volume=34|issue=2|pages=268–276|doi=10.3758/bf03193405|issn=0090-502X|pmid=16752591|s2cid=41086978|doi-access=free}} but can hinder long term retrieval overtime due to reduced retrieval demand during practice.{{cite journal|last1=Carpenter|first1=S.K.|year=2009|title=Cue Strength as a Moderator of the Testing Effect: The Benefits of Elaborative Retrieval|journal=Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition|volume=35|issue=6|pages=1563–1569|doi=10.1037/a0017021|pmid=19857026}} Quicker learning can reduce the rate of forgetting for a short period of time, but the effect doesn't last as long as more effortful retrieval.{{Cite web|title=The psychology of human learning.|url=https://psycnet.apa.org/record/1942-15076-000|access-date=2021-12-06|website=psycnet.apa.org|language=en}} Cueing can be seen when encoding new information overlaps with prior knowledge making retrieval easier{{Cite journal|last1=Morris|first1=C. Donald|last2=Bransford|first2=John D.|last3=Franks|first3=Jeffery J.|date=1977-10-01|title=Levels of processing versus transfer appropriate processing|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0022537177800169|journal=Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior|language=en|volume=16|issue=5|pages=519–533|doi=10.1016/S0022-5371(77)80016-9|issn=0022-5371|url-access=subscription}}{{Cite book|last=Tulving|first=Endel|url=https://philpapers.org/rec/TULEOE|title=Elements of Episodic Memory|date=1983|publisher=Oxford University Press}} or from a visual or auditory aid.

Prior knowledge seems to increase the impact of retrieval practice,{{Cite journal|last1=Giebl|first1=Saskia|last2=Mena|first2=Stefany|last3=Storm|first3=Benjamin C.|last4=Bjork|first4=Elizabeth Ligon|last5=Bjork|first5=Robert A.|date=2021-03-01|title=Answer First or Google First? Using the Internet in ways that Enhance, not Impair, One's Subsequent Retention of Needed Information|url=https://doi.org/10.1177/1475725720961593|journal=Psychology Learning & Teaching|language=en|volume=20|issue=1|pages=58–75|doi=10.1177/1475725720961593|s2cid=226317994|issn=1475-7257|url-access=subscription}} but should not be seen as a boundary condition as individuals with higher prior knowledge and individuals with lower prior knowledge both benefit.{{Cite journal |last1=Buchin |first1=Zachary L. |last2=Mulligan |first2=Neil W. |date=2022-09-22 |title=Retrieval-based learning and prior knowledge. |url=http://doi.apa.org/getdoi.cfm?doi=10.1037/edu0000773 |journal=Journal of Educational Psychology |language=en |doi=10.1037/edu0000773 |s2cid=252476327 |issn=1939-2176|url-access=subscription }} Pre-testing can be used to get greater results,{{Cite journal|last1=Rohrer|first1=Doug|last2=Taylor|first2=Kelli|last3=Sholar|first3=Brandon|date=2010|title=Tests enhance the transfer of learning|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20053059/|journal=Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition|volume=36|issue=1|pages=233–239|doi=10.1037/a0017678|issn=1939-1285|pmid=20053059}}{{Cite journal|last1=Pan|first1=Steven C.|last2=Sana|first2=Faria|date=2021-04-01|title=Pretesting versus posttesting: Comparing the pedagogical benefits of errorful generation and retrieval practice.|url=http://doi.apa.org/getdoi.cfm?doi=10.1037/xap0000345|journal=Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied|volume=27|issue=2|pages=237–257|language=en|doi=10.1037/xap0000345|pmid=33793291|s2cid=232762494|issn=1939-2192}} and the post-testing can be used to facilitate learning and memory of newly studied information, known as the forward testing effect.{{Cite journal|last1=Kliegl|first1=Oliver|last2=Bäuml|first2=Karl-Heinz T.|date=October 2021|title=When retrieval practice promotes new learning – The critical role of study material|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0749596X2100036X|journal=Journal of Memory and Language|language=en|volume=120|pages=104253|doi=10.1016/j.jml.2021.104253|url-access=subscription}} Pre-test or practice test accuracy doesn't predict post test results as time affects forgetting {{Citation|last1=Dunlosky|first1=John|title=Influence of practice tests on the accuracy of predicting memory performance for paired associates, sentences, and text material|date=2002|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/applied-metacognition/influence-of-practice-tests-on-the-accuracy-of-predicting-memory-performance-for-paired-associates-sentences-and-text-material/AAA8C234FFF8D9E64F2CBF60B66F4584|work=Applied Metacognition|pages=68–92|editor-last=Schwartz|editor-first=Bennett L.|place=Cambridge|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-00037-6|access-date=2021-12-06|last2=Rawson|first2=Katherine A.|last3=McDonald|first3=Susan L.|editor2-last=Perfect|editor2-first=Timothy J.}}

= Pre-testing effect =

The pre-testing effect, also known as errorful generation or pre-questioning, is a related but distinct category where testing material before the material has been learned appears to lead to better subsequent learning performance than would have been the case without the pre-test, provided that feedback is given as to the correct answers once the pre-testing phase is completed or further study is undertaken. Pre-testing has been shown to aid learning in both laboratory. and classroom settings.{{Cite journal |last1=Carpenter |first1=Shana K. |last2=Rahman |first2=Shuhebur |last3=Perkins |first3=Kyle |date=March 2018 |title=The effects of prequestions on classroom learning. |url=http://doi.apa.org/getdoi.cfm?doi=10.1037/xap0000145 |journal=Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied |language=en |volume=24 |issue=1 |pages=34–42 |doi=10.1037/xap0000145 |pmid=29595303 |s2cid=4465862 |issn=1939-2192|url-access=subscription }} In terms of specific examples, pre-testing appears to be a beneficial strategy in language learning, science classrooms generally,{{Cite journal |last1=Richland |first1=Lindsey E. |last2=Kornell |first2=Nate |last3=Kao |first3=Liche Sean |date=2009 |title=The pretesting effect: Do unsuccessful retrieval attempts enhance learning? |url=http://doi.apa.org/getdoi.cfm?doi=10.1037/a0016496 |journal=Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied |language=en |volume=15 |issue=3 |pages=243–257 |doi=10.1037/a0016496 |pmid=19751074 |issn=1939-2192|url-access=subscription }} and specifically with lower ability learners in Chemistry.{{Cite journal |last1=Pyburn |first1=Daniel T. |last2=Pazicni |first2=Samuel |last3=Benassi |first3=Victor A. |last4=Tappin |first4=Elizabeth M. |date=2014-12-09 |title=The Testing Effect: An Intervention on Behalf of Low-Skilled Comprehenders in General Chemistry |url=https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/ed4009045 |journal=Journal of Chemical Education |language=en |volume=91 |issue=12 |pages=2045–2057 |doi=10.1021/ed4009045 |bibcode=2014JChEd..91.2045P |issn=0021-9584|url-access=subscription }} Pre-testing also seems to be a good way of introducing a lecture series and reduces mind-wandering during lectures.{{Cite journal |last1=Pan |first1=Steven C. |last2=Schmitt |first2=Alexandra G. |last3=Bjork |first3=Elizabeth Ligon |last4=Sana |first4=Faria |date=December 2020 |title=Pretesting reduces mind wandering and enhances learning during online lectures. |url=http://doi.apa.org/getdoi.cfm?doi=10.1016/j.jarmac.2020.07.004 |journal=Journal of Applied Research in Memory and Cognition |language=en |volume=9 |issue=4 |pages=542–554 |doi=10.1016/j.jarmac.2020.07.004 |s2cid=221093237 |issn=2211-369X|url-access=subscription }} However, while some studies show that it does not seem to be as effective as post testing overall,{{Cite journal |last1=Latimier |first1=Alice |last2=Riegert |first2=Arnaud |last3=Peyre |first3=Hugo |last4=Ly |first4=Son Thierry |last5=Casati |first5=Roberto |last6=Ramus |first6=Franck |date=2019-09-24 |title=Does pre-testing promote better retention than post-testing? |journal=npj Science of Learning |language=en |volume=4 |issue=1 |page=15 |doi=10.1038/s41539-019-0053-1 |pmid=31583117 |pmc=6760123 |bibcode=2019npjSL...4...15L |issn=2056-7936}} others show that it is at least as effective as post-testing.{{Cite journal |last1=Pan |first1=Steven C. |last2=Sana |first2=Faria |date=June 2021 |title=Pretesting versus posttesting: Comparing the pedagogical benefits of errorful generation and retrieval practice. |url=http://doi.apa.org/getdoi.cfm?doi=10.1037/xap0000345 |journal=Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied |language=en |volume=27 |issue=2 |pages=237–257 |doi=10.1037/xap0000345 |pmid=33793291 |s2cid=232762494 |issn=1939-2192}} The pre-testing effect does appear to be more target focused on the specific material to be learned and should not be seen as correlated with more generalised curiosity.{{Cite journal |last1=Hollins |first1=Timothy J. |last2=Seabrooke |first2=Tina |last3=Inkster |first3=Angus |last4=Wills |first4=Andy |last5=Mitchell |first5=Chris J. |date=2023-02-07 |title=Pre-testing effects are target-specific and are not driven by a generalised state of curiosity |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/09658211.2022.2153141 |journal=Memory |language=en |volume=31 |issue=2 |pages=282–296 |doi=10.1080/09658211.2022.2153141 |pmid=36475537 |s2cid=254432248 |issn=0965-8211|hdl=10026.1/20003 |hdl-access=free }} While the strategy has been demonstrated to have learning benefits across different age groups and subject matters, it also appears to be more suited for more concrete material such as learning facts and concepts. It can be used with a variety of materials, including reading passages, videos, and live lectures.{{Cite web |last1=Pan |first1=Steven |last2=Carpenter |first2=Shana |date=2023 |title=Prequestioning and Pretesting Effects: A Review of Empirical Research, Theoretical Perspectives, and Applications |url=https://psyarxiv.com/9rqpm |access-date=2023-08-20 |website=psyarxiv.com}}

= Practice methods =

When compared to concept mapping alone, retrieval practice is more beneficial,{{Cite web|title=A powerful way to improve learning and memory|url=https://www.apa.org/science/about/psa/2016/06/learning-memory|access-date=2021-12-06|website=www.apa.org}} despite students not seeing retrieval practice as a useful learning tool.{{Cite journal|last1=Lechuga|first1=M. Teresa|last2=Ortega-Tudela|first2=Juana M.|last3=Gómez-Ariza|first3=Carlos J.|date=December 2015|title=Further evidence that concept mapping is not better than repeated retrieval as a tool for learning from texts|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0959475215300232|journal=Learning and Instruction|language=en|volume=40|pages=61–68|doi=10.1016/j.learninstruc.2015.08.002|url-access=subscription}} When combined, learner performance was increased, suggesting concept mapping is a tool that should be combined with retrieval practice{{Cite journal|last1=Blunt|first1=Janell R.|last2=Karpicke|first2=Jeffrey D.|date=2014|title=Learning with retrieval-based concept mapping.|url=http://doi.apa.org/getdoi.cfm?doi=10.1037/a0035934|journal=Journal of Educational Psychology|language=en|volume=106|issue=3|pages=849–858|doi=10.1037/a0035934|issn=1939-2176|url-access=subscription}} alongside other non-verbal responses.{{Cite journal|last1=Carpenter|first1=Shana K.|last2=Pashler|first2=Harold|date=2007|title=Testing beyond words: using tests to enhance visuospatial map learning|journal=Psychonomic Bulletin & Review|volume=14|issue=3|pages=474–478|doi=10.3758/bf03194092|issn=1069-9384|pmid=17874591|s2cid=11660721|doi-access=free}} Retrieval helps with mental organization{{Cite web|title=Subjective organization in free recall of "unrelated" words.|url=https://psycnet.apa.org/record/1964-02036-001|access-date=2021-12-07|website=psycnet.apa.org|language=en}} which can work well with concept mapping. Multimedia testing can be used{{Cite journal|last1=Johnson|first1=Cheryl I.|last2=Mayer|first2=Richard E.|date=2009|title=A testing effect with multimedia learning.|url=http://doi.apa.org/getdoi.cfm?doi=10.1037/a0015183|journal=Journal of Educational Psychology|language=en|volume=101|issue=3|pages=621–629|doi=10.1037/a0015183|issn=1939-2176|url-access=subscription}} alongside flashcards as a method of retrieval practice but removing cards too early can result in lower long term retention.{{Cite journal|last1=Roediger|first1=Henry L.|last2=Karpicke|first2=Jeffrey D.|date=2006|title=Repeated retrieval during learning is the key to enhancing long-term retention|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/e527352012-265|access-date=2021-12-07|website=PsycEXTRA Dataset|doi=10.1037/e527352012-265|url-access=subscription}} Individuals may not correctly interpret the outcome of practice cards{{Cite web|title=How do we know that we know? The accessibility model of the feeling of knowing.|url=https://psycnet.apa.org/record/1994-04361-001|access-date=2021-12-06|website=psycnet.apa.org|language=en}} contributing to dropped cards which impact future retrieval attempts {{Cite journal|last1=Karpicke|first1=Jeffrey D.|last2=Roediger|first2=Henry L.|date=2007-08-01|title=Repeated retrieval during learning is the key to long-term retention|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0749596X06001367|journal=Journal of Memory and Language|language=en|volume=57|issue=2|pages=151–162|doi=10.1016/j.jml.2006.09.004|issn=0749-596X|url-access=subscription}} therefore resulting in lower results due to increased forgetting.

It is advised that students,{{Cite journal|last=Dunlosky|first=John|date=2013|title=Strengthening the Student Toolbox: Study Strategies to Boost Learning|url=https://eric.ed.gov/?id=EJ1021069|journal=American Educator|language=en|volume=37|issue=3|pages=12–21|issn=0148-432X}} people in care units{{Cite journal|last1=Cooper|first1=Avraham Z.|last2=Verbeck|first2=Nicole|last3=McCallister|first3=Jennifer W.|last4=Spitzer|first4=Carleen R.|date=2020-12-01|title=Incorporating Retrieval Practice Into Intensive Care Unit Teaching Rounds: A Feasibility Study|url=https://meridian.allenpress.com/jgme/article/12/6/778/447989/Incorporating-Retrieval-Practice-Into-Intensive|journal=Journal of Graduate Medical Education|language=en|volume=12|issue=6|pages=778–781|doi=10.4300/JGME-D-20-00082.1|issn=1949-8357|pmc=7771589|pmid=33391605}} and teaching professionals{{Cite journal|last1=McDaniel|first1=Mark A.|last2=Agarwal|first2=Pooja K.|last3=Huelser|first3=Barbie J.|last4=McDermott|first4=Kathleen B.|last5=Roediger|first5=Henry L.|date=2011|title=Test-enhanced learning in a middle school science classroom: The effects of quiz frequency and placement.|url=http://doi.apa.org/getdoi.cfm?doi=10.1037/a0021782|journal=Journal of Educational Psychology|language=en|volume=103|issue=2|pages=399–414|doi=10.1037/a0021782|issn=1939-2176|url-access=subscription}}{{Cite book|last1=Agarwal|first1=Pooja K.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OpCWDwAAQBAJ&dq=Powerful+Teaching%3A+Unleash+the+Science+of+Learning&pg=PA1|title=Powerful Teaching: Unleash the Science of Learning|last2=Bain|first2=Patrice M.|date=2019-06-05|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=978-1-119-52184-6|language=en}}{{Cite book|last=Jones|first=Kate|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CIM7EAAAQBAJ&dq=Jones,+Kate+(2020).+Retrieval+Practice:+Resources+and+research+for+every+classroom.+John+Catt+Educational.+ISBN+978-1912906581.&pg=PA1|title=Retrieval Practice: Research & Resources for every classroom|date=2020-07-27|publisher=John Catt Educational|isbn=978-1-913808-06-8|language=en}} use distributed{{Cite journal|last=McCabe|first=Jennifer|date=2011|title=Metacognitive awareness of learning strategies in undergraduates|journal=Memory & Cognition|volume=39|issue=3|pages=462–476|doi=10.3758/s13421-010-0035-2|issn=1532-5946|pmid=21264604|s2cid=1682524|doi-access=free}} retrieval practiceGurung, R.A., 2005. [https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Regan-Gurung/publication/228786091_How_Do_Students_Really_Study_and_Does_It_Matter/links/004635140972ab064d000000/How-Do-Students-Really-Study-and-Does-It-Matter.pdf How do students really study (and does it matter]). Education, 39, pp.323-340. with feedback to aid their studies.{{Cite journal|last=Augustin|first=Marc|date=2014|title=How to learn effectively in medical school: test yourself, learn actively, and repeat in intervals|journal=The Yale Journal of Biology and Medicine|volume=87|issue=2|pages=207–212|issn=1551-4056|pmc=4031794|pmid=24910566}} Interleaved practice, self-explanation, and elaborative interrogation can be useful but need more research.{{Cite journal|last=Endowment Foundation|first=Education|title=Cognitive Science Approaches in the Classroom|url=https://d2tic4wvo1iusb.cloudfront.net/documents/guidance/Cognitive_science_approaches_in_the_classroom_-_A_review_of_the_evidence.pdf|journal=Education Endowment Foundation Website|pages=15–48|via=Education Endowment Foundation}} Summarization can be useful for individuals trained how to use to get the most from it.{{Cite journal|last1=Rinehart|first1=Steven D.|last2=Stahl|first2=Steven A.|last3=Erickson|first3=Lawrence G.|date=1986|title=Some Effects of Summarization Training on Reading and Studying|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/747614|journal=Reading Research Quarterly|volume=21|issue=4|pages=422–438|doi=10.2307/747614|jstor=747614|issn=0034-0553|url-access=subscription}} Keyword mnemonics and imagery for text have been somewhat helpful but the effects are often short lived.{{Cite journal|last1=Wang|first1=Alvin Y.|last2=Thomas|first2=Margaret H.|last3=Ouellette|first3=Judith A.|date=1992|title=Keyword mnemonic and retention of second-language vocabulary words.|url=http://doi.apa.org/getdoi.cfm?doi=10.1037/0022-0663.84.4.520|journal=Journal of Educational Psychology|language=en|volume=84|issue=4|pages=520–528|doi=10.1037/0022-0663.84.4.520|issn=1939-2176|url-access=subscription}} However, if each of these methods are integrated with retrieval elements the testing effect is more likely to occur.

= Test benefits =

A list of benefits of retrieval practice.{{Citation|last1=Roediger III|first1=Henry L.|title=Chapter One - Ten Benefits of Testing and Their Applications to Educational Practice|date=2011-01-01|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780123876911000016|work=Psychology of Learning and Motivation|volume=55|pages=1–36|editor-last=Mestre|editor-first=Jose P.|publisher=Academic Press|language=en|access-date=2021-12-07|last2=Putnam|first2=Adam L.|last3=Smith|first3=Megan A.|doi=10.1016/B978-0-12-387691-1.00001-6|editor2-last=Ross|editor2-first=Brian H.|url-access=subscription}}

Aids later retention
Identifies knowledge gaps
Aids future related learning
Prevents interference from prior material in future learning
Aids transfer of knowledge to new contexts
Aids knowledge organization
Aids retrieval of untested information
Improves metacognitive monitoring
Provides feedback to instructors
Frequent testing encourages study intentions

= Quizzes =

A meta-analysis found the following links between frequent low-stakes quizzes in real classes and improved student academic performance:{{Cite journal|last1=Sotola|first1=Lukas K.|last2=Crede|first2=Marcus|date=June 2021|title=Regarding Class Quizzes: a Meta-analytic Synthesis of Studies on the Relationship Between Frequent Low-Stakes Testing and Class Performance|url=https://link.springer.com/10.1007/s10648-020-09563-9|journal=Educational Psychology Review|language=en|volume=33|issue=2|pages=407–426|doi=10.1007/s10648-020-09563-9|issn=1040-726X|s2cid=225447986}}

There was an association between the use of quizzes and academic performance.
This association was stronger in psychology classes
This association was stronger in all classes when quiz performance could improve class grades.
Students doing well on quizzes tended to lead to students doing well on final exams
Regular quizzing increased the chances of students passing classes

= Transfer of learning =

Learning using retrieval practice appears to be one of the most effective methods for promoting transfer of learning. In particular the following three techniques have been identified as particularly beneficial for transfer especially when combined with feedback: i) Implementing broad rather than narrow retrieval exercises ii) Encouraging meaningful explanations of concepts or topics iii) Using a variety of complexity and formats with questions such as retrieval questions that require inference.{{Cite journal|last1=Pan|first1=Steven|last2=Agarwal|first2=Pooja|title=Retrieval Practice And Transfer Of Learning Fostering Students' Application Of Knowledge|url=http://pdf.retrievalpractice.org/TransferGuide.pdf|journal=Retrieval Practice Org|pages=5|via=UC San Diego}}

Considerations

= Complex materials =

Some researchers have applied aspects of cognitive load theory to suggest the testing effect may disappear with increasing task difficulty due to increased element interactivity.{{Cite journal|last1=van Gog|first1=Tamara|last2=Sweller|first2=John|date=2015-06-01|title=Not New, but Nearly Forgotten: the Testing Effect Decreases or even Disappears as the Complexity of Learning Materials Increases|url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-015-9310-x|journal=Educational Psychology Review|language=en|volume=27|issue=2|pages=247–264|doi=10.1007/s10648-015-9310-x|issn=1573-336X|hdl-access=free|hdl=1765/92178|s2cid=145345472}} This has been addressed in the literature with studies that show complex learning is benefitted by retrieval practice.{{Cite journal|last1=Karpicke|first1=Jeffrey D.|last2=Aue|first2=William R.|date=June 2015|title=The Testing Effect Is Alive and Well with Complex Materials|url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s10648-015-9309-3|journal=Educational Psychology Review|language=en|volume=27|issue=2|pages=317–326|doi=10.1007/s10648-015-9309-3|s2cid=34064308|issn=1040-726X|url-access=subscription}} Further research has demonstrated that higher-order retrieval does not need to be based on a lower-level factual recall, and that from the beginning of the learning period, both should be combined for best effect.{{Cite journal |last=Agarwal |first=Pooja K. |date=February 2019 |title=Retrieval practice & Bloom's taxonomy: Do students need fact knowledge before higher order learning? |journal=Journal of Educational Psychology |language=en |volume=111 |issue=2 |pages=189–209 |doi=10.1037/edu0000282 |s2cid=91176973 |issn=1939-2176|doi-access=free }}

= Future research =

It has been suggested that as most studies on the impact of retrieval practice were conducted in WEIRD countries, this could cause a bias which should be explored in further studies.{{Cite journal|last1=Agarwal|first1=Pooja K.|last2=Nunes|first2=Ludmila D.|last3=Blunt|first3=Janell R.|date=2021-03-14|title=Retrieval Practice Consistently Benefits Student Learning: a Systematic Review of Applied Research in Schools and Classrooms|url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s10648-021-09595-9|journal=Educational Psychology Review|volume=33|issue=4|pages=1409–1453|language=en|doi=10.1007/s10648-021-09595-9|s2cid=235079733|issn=1040-726X}}

References

Category:Memory tests

Category:Memory

Category:Educational psychology