Thao language

The name Thao literally means "person", from Proto-Austronesian *Cau. It is therefore cognate with the name of the Tsou.

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Speaking Thao was criminalised under Japanese rule of Taiwan and later the Kuomintang regime, contributing to its critically endangered status today.{{Cite web|work=The Guardian|title=Healing words: Taiwan’s tribes fight to save their disappearing languages|date=2021-06-09|first=Helen |last=Davidson|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2021/jun/09/healing-words-taiwans-tribes-fight-to-save-their-disappearing-languages|access-date=2024-04-27}}

A Thao-English dictionary by Robert A. Blust was published in 2003 by Academia Sinica's Institute of Linguistics.{{cite web|work=Taiwan Today|publisher=Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Republic of China (Taiwan)|title=Thao language rouses foreign interest|date=2008-12-04|url=https://taiwantoday.tw/news.php?unit=10,23,45,10&post=15092|access-date=2024-03-27}}

In 2014, there were four L1 speakers and a fluent L2 speaker living in Ita Thaw (伊達邵) village (traditionally called Barawbaw), all but one of whom were over the age of sixty.{{Citation needed|date=November 2021}} Two elderly native speakers died in December of that year, including chief Tarma (袁明智), age 75.{{citation needed|date=July 2021}} Four elderly L1 speakers and some semi-speakers were reported in 2021.

Orthographic notes:

• {{IPA|/θ ð ʃ/}} are written {{angbr|th z sh}}. However, {{IPA|/θ/}} is written {{angbr|c}} in Blust's dictionary.
• {{IPA|/ɬ/}} is written {{angbr|lh}}.
• {{IPA|/ŋ/}} is written {{angbr|ng}}. However, {{IPA|/ŋ/}} is written {{angbr|g}} in Blust's dictionary.
• {{IPA|/ʔ/}} is written {{angbr|'}}.

Notes:

• The glides {{IPA|/j w/}} are derived from the underlying vowels {{IPA|/i u/}} to meet the requirements that syllables must have onset consonants and to indicate stress placement accurately.
• [v] is an allophone of {{IPA|/w/}} occurring intervocalically.

Notes:

• Stress is penultimate, otherwise can be written {{angbr|á í ú}} as in "dadú", but doubling {{angbr|aa ii uu}} is also frequently used, as in "daduu".
• {{IPA|[e]}} and {{IPA|[o]}} occur as allophones of {{IPA|/i/}} and {{IPA|/u/}}, respectively, when preceded or followed either by {{IPA|/q/}} or {{IPA|/r/}}.

Thao has two or arguably three patterns of reduplication: Ca-reduplication, full reduplication, and rightward reduplication (which is sometimes considered to be a form of full reduplication).

Thao verbs have the following types of focus (Blust 2003:239).

1. Actor: -um- (present), ma- (future)
2. Patient: -in, -in-
3. Locative: -an

Thao word order can be both SVO and VSO, although the former is derived from Taiwanese Hokkien (Blust 2003:228).

The Thao personal marker is "ti" (Blust 2003:228). Negatives include "ani" and "antu"; "ata tu" is used in "don't" constructions. The perfect is marked by "iza", the past by an infix just after the primary onset consonant "-in-" and the future by the prefix "a-". Imperatives are marked by "-í" and softer imperatives or requests roughly translated as "please" by "-uan" sometimes spelled "-wan" which can co-occur with "-í".

The Thao personal pronouns below are from Blust (2003:207). Note that there is only 1 form each for "we (exclusive)," "you (plural)" and "they."

Other pronouns include:

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• minmihu - for you
• panmihu - as for you
• panihun - because of you
• shanaihun - up to you
• shaunatazihun - go to your place
• shmunaihun - bring to you
• nakin - for me
• panyakin - as for me
• pashiyakin - leave me
• shanayayakin - up to me
• shmunayakin - bring me

{{div col end}}

The following affixes are sourced from Blust (2003:92-188) and adjusted to the modern spelling.

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• a- : only found in /kan/ 'eat'
• -ak : '1st person singular (I)'
• ak- ... -in : 'morning, noon, evening meals'
• an- : uncertain function
• -an : Verbal uses can be indicative, imperative, or adversative.
• i- : prefix or clitic particle marking location
• -i : imperative
• -ik : patient focus (1st person singular)
• -in- : perfective or completive aspect
• -in : patient focus
• ish- : found most with intransitive verbs (uncommon prefix)
• ka- : 'to make an X', 'two times' (with reduplication)
• ka- ... -an : meaning unclear
• kal- : 'X told'
• kalh- : 'to pile, spread'
• kash- : 'intensity, repetition'
• kashi- : meaning uncertain
• kashi- ... -an : 'pull by the X'
• kashun- : derives verbs referring to positions of the human body, or sometimes objects such as boats
• kat- : 'gradually become X'
• ki- : 'stand, stay'; other possible meanings as well
• ki- ... -an : 'be affected with pain in the X'
• kilh- : 'search for, seek'
• kin- : 'to pick or gather X'
• kit- ... -in : 'infested with X'
• ku- : 'to perform an action with X' (when used with tools or weapons); less specific in other contexts
• kun- : 'sudden or abrupt action', 'to eat the X meal', 'to do X times'; meaning unclear sometimes
• la- : usually found in expressions of quantity of degree
• lhin- : causative sense
• lhun- : swelling-related meanings, etc.
• m- : marks the genitive in 'you (2s)' and 'we (incl.)'
• ma- : marks stative verbs, occasionally nouns derived from stative verbs
• ma- : active verb prefix
• ma- : prefix marking the future in actor focus verbs
• ma- : 'tens' (used with numbers)
• mak- : intransitive verbs
• maka- : 'to resemble X' (people), 'produce X' (plant or animal parts), 'from/in/to X' (deictic/directional expressions)
• makin- : intransitive verbs; 'Xth from the bottom' (with numerals)
• makit- : 'happen gradually', 'perform X gradually'
• maku- : directional sense, and is followed by /na/- (though it does not follow not in non-locative expressions)
• malhi- : 'give birth to an X'
• man- : generally used with dynamic, intransitive verbs
• mana- : generally found with directional verbs
• mapa- : 'reciprocal', 'collective action'
• mash- : 'to speak X' (language), 'walk with an X' (positions or conditions of the leg)
• masha- : relates to body positions, or may have a directional meaning
• mashi- : comparatives (with stative bases of measurement); often synonymous with /ma/- (stative verb marker)
• mat- : derives intransitive or stative verbs
• mati- : locative expressions
• matin- + full reduplication : 'X-ish' or 'spotted with X' (colors)
• mi- : derives intransitive verbs, often with some form of base reduplication
• mi- + Ca reduplication : 'do with a group of X'
• mya- : used to derive various verbs
• min- : derives inchoative verbs (Bunun loan?); 'become an X' or 'become like an X' (with kinship terms)
• mu- : most frequently derives verbs of motion; 'go into X; enter X' (with concrete nouns that refer to structures or places capable of being entered); 'search for X' (with names of useful plants); 'do X times' (numeral bases and expressions of quantity)
• mun- : intransitive verbs
• -n : derives accusative pronouns from nominative bases
• na- : most commonly with verbs indicating change of location; 'it's up to X'
• pa- : causative of dynamic verbs (verbs with -/um/-); 'make X do Y' or 'let X do Y'; active transitive (or intransitive) verb with no causative argument/sense
• pak- : 'exude X' (body fluids, other natural fluids/substances); intransitive verb prefix
• pan- : 'perform X in a downward direction'
• pan- ... -an : used with terms for lineal consanguines to derive the corresponding collateral terms of the same generation (e.g., 'father' > 'uncle', 'grandparent' > 'grandparental sibling')
• pash- ... -an : 'place in which X is kept'
• pashi- : generally causative sense (often with Ca-reduplication); 'let X do it' or 'let X have it' (with the accusative forms of personal pronouns)
• pashi- ... -an : 'put X on' or 'wear X'
• pat- : generally causative sense
• pi- : causative verbs of location (can be paired with /i/- 'at, in, on'); may also form non-locative verbs
• pya- : forms causative verbs (usually have stative counterparts with /ma/-; note that /pa/- and -/um/- are also counterparts.); simulative verb
• pik- : generally causative sense
• pin- : generally forms causative verbs or deverbal nouns
• pish- : 'play X' (musical instruments); inchoative sense (sometimes with an implied element of suddenness); causative sense
• pu- : causative or transitive counterpart of the movement prefix /mu/-, which is intransitive; 'use an X' or 'put in an X' (with names of some tools); 'send out an X' (with names of plant parts)
• pu- ... -an : to wear X' (body ornaments)
• pun- : 'to catch X' (animals used for food)
• qata- : bodily movement, observation, and the like
• sha- : directional sense ('facing', etc.)
• shan-na-Ca- ... : 'it's up to X' (often with pronouns)
• shau- : 'go to X' or 'arrive at X' (with bases that have an inherently locative sense or temporal sense)
• shi- : appears to mark past tense (as opposed to the perfective aspect marker -/in/-)
• shi- : sometimes appears with commands
• shi-X-X : 'X-ish, somewhat X'
• shi-X-iz: 'X times'
• shu- : 'bring X' or 'take X' (with pronominal and deictic bases)
• tana- : generally directional sense (from Bunun /tana/- 'prefix of direction')
• tau- : 'to carry X' (with concrete nouns); 'to turn to X' (with bases having a directional meaning)
• tish- : forms both transitive and intransitive verbs; often refers to results of non-deliberate actions
• tu-Ca- ... : 'the odor of X'
• -um- : actor focus infix
• un- ... -an : 'undesirable bodily conditions or afflictions'; 'figurative extension of a physical affliction'
• -un : equivalent of -/in/ 'patient focus' (borrowed from Bunun)
• -wak : 1st person singular actor (apparently distinct from -/ak/)
• -wan : 'X's turn (to do something)'
• ya- : only comes after /mapa/- 'reciprocal or collective action'
• -zan : 'X paces' (used with numerals)

;Quasi-affixes

• kan 'step, walk'
• lhqa 'live, living'
• pasaháy 'to use'
• qalha 'much, many'
• sa (usually almost impossible to translate in most environments)

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{{Reflist}}

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• {{Cite book |last=Blust |first=Robert |url=http://www.ling.sinica.edu.tw/Files/LL/UploadFiles/MonoFullText/Thao%20Dictionary.pdf |title=Thao Dictionary |date=2003 |publisher=Institute of Linguistics (Preparatory Office), Academia Sinica |isbn=957-01-4785-7 |series=Language and Linguistics, Monograph Series A5 |location=Taipei |language=en |author-link=Robert Blust |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220121150941/ling.sinica.edu.tw/Files/LL/UploadFiles/MonoFullText/Thao%20Dictionary.pdf |archive-date=21 January 2022}}
• {{Cite book |last=Huang |first=Meijin 黃美金 |title=Shàoyǔ cānkǎo yǔfǎ |date=2000 |publisher=Yuanliu |isbn=957-32-3890-X |location=Taibei Shi |language=zh |script-title=zh:邵語參考語法 |trans-title=A Reference Grammar of Thao}}
• {{Cite book |last=Jian |first=Shilang 簡史朗 |url=https://alilin.apc.gov.tw/tw/ebooks?view=adm_ebook&id=721 |title=Shàoyǔ yǔfǎ gàilùn |date=2018 |publisher=Yuanzhu minzu weiyuanhui |isbn=978-986-05-5685-8 |location=Xinbei Shi |language=zh |script-title=zh:邵語 語法概論 |trans-title=Introduction to Thao Grammar |via=alilin.apc.gov.tw}}

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{{incubator|ssf}}

• Robert Blust's audio recordings of Thao are archived with Kaipuleohone
• [https://e-dictionary.ilrdf.org.tw/ssf/search.htm Yuánzhùmínzú yǔyán xiànshàng cídiǎn 原住民族語言線上詞典] {{in lang|zh}} – Thao search page at the "Aboriginal language online dictionary" website of the Indigenous Languages Research and Development Foundation
• [https://alilin.apc.gov.tw/tw/ebooks?tag=617 Thao teaching and leaning materials published by the Council of Indigenous Peoples of Taiwan] {{in lang|zh}}
• [https://indigenous-justice.president.gov.tw/doc/apology_text/Thao.pdf Thao translation of President Tsai Ing-wen's 2016 apology to indigenous people] – published on the website of the presidential office

{{Languages of Taiwan}}

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Category:Formosan languages

Category:Endangered Austronesian languages