Ultrastructure

In 1931, German engineers Max Knoll and Ernst Ruska invented the first electron microscope.{{cite book |last=Masters |first=Barry R |date=March 2009 |chapter=History of the Electron Microscope in Cell Biology |title=Encyclopedia of Life Sciences (ELS) |publisher=John Wiley & Sons, Ltd |location=Chichester |doi=10.1002/9780470015902.a0021539 |isbn=9780470016176 |chapter-url=http://fen.bilkent.edu.tr/~physics/news/masters/ELS_HistoryEM.pdf}} With the development and invention of this microscope, the range of observable structures that were able to be explored and analyzed increased immensely, as biologists became progressively interested in the submicroscopic organization of cells. This new area of research concerned itself with substructure, also known as the ultrastructure.{{cite book | last=Brieger | first=E.M. | title=Structure and Ultrastructure of Microorganisms | chapter=Ultrastructure of the Cell | publisher=Elsevier | date=1963 | isbn=978-0-12-134350-7 | doi=10.1016/b978-0-12-134350-7.50005-8 | page=1–7}}

Many scientists use ultrastructural observations to study the following, including but not limited to:

• Human Tumors{{cite book | last1=Eyden | first1=B. | last2=Banerjee | first2=S.S. | last3=Ru | first3=Y. | last4=Liberski | first4=P. | title=The Ultrastructure of Human Tumours: Applications in Diagnosis and Research | publisher=Springer Berlin Heidelberg | year=2014 | isbn=978-3-642-39168-2 }}
• Chloroplasts{{cite journal | last1=Musser | first1=Robert L. | last2=Thomas | first2=Shirley A. | last3=Wise | first3=Robert R. | last4=Peeler | first4=Thomas C. | last5=Naylor | first5=Aubrey W. | title=Chloroplast Ultrastructure, Chlorophyll Fluorescence, and Pigment Composition in Chilling-Stressed Soybeans | journal=Plant Physiology | volume=74 | issue=4 | date=1984-04-01 | issn=0032-0889 | pmid=16663504 | pmc=1066762 | doi=10.1104/pp.74.4.749 | pages=749–754}}
• Bone{{cite book | last1=Moreira | first1=Carolina A. | last2=Dempster | first2=David W. | last3=Baron | first3=Roland | title=Endotext | chapter=Anatomy and Ultrastructure of Bone – Histogenesis, Growth and Remodeling | publisher=MDText.com, Inc. | publication-place=South Dartmouth (MA) | date=2000 | pmid=25905372 | page=}}
• Platelets{{cite journal | last1=Cramer | first1=Elisabeth M. | last2=Norol | first2=Françoise | last3=Guichard | first3=Josette | last4=Breton-Gorius | first4=Janine | last5=Vainchenker | first5=William | last6=Massé | first6=Jean-Marc | last7=Debili | first7=Najet | title=Ultrastructure of Platelet Formation by Human Megakaryocytes Cultured With the Mpl Ligand | journal=Blood | volume=89 | issue=7 | date=1997-04-01 | issn=1528-0020 | doi=10.1182/blood.V89.7.2336 | pages=2336–2346| pmid=9116277 | s2cid=7757033 | doi-access=free }}
• Sperm{{cite journal | last1=Ferreira | first1=Adelina | last2=Dolder | first2=Heidi | title=Sperm ultrastructure and spermatogenesis in the lizard, Tropidurus itambere | journal=Biocell | volume=27 | issue=3 | date=1990-01-06 | issn=0327-9545 | pages=353–362 | pmid=15002752 | url=http://www.scielo.org.ar/pdf/biocell/v27n3/v27n3a06.pdf}}

A common ultrastructural feature found in plant cells is the formation of calcium oxalate crystals.{{cite journal | last1=Prychid | first1=C. J. | last2=Jabaily | first2=R. S. | last3=Rudall | first3=P. J. | title=Cellular Ultrastructure and Crystal Development in Amorphophallus (Araceae) | journal=Annals of Botany | volume=101 | issue=7 | date=2008-03-13 | issn=0305-7364 | pmid=18285357 | pmc=2710233 | doi=10.1093/aob/mcn022 | pages=983–995}} It has been theorized that these crystals function to store calcium within the cell until it is needed for growth or development.{{cite journal | last1=Tilton | first1=V. R. | last2=Horner | first2=H. T. | title=Calcium Oxalate Raphide Crystals and Crystalliferous Idioblasts in the Carpels of Ornithogalum caudatum | journal=Annals of Botany | volume=46 | issue=5 | date=1980 | issn=1095-8290 | doi=10.1093/oxfordjournals.aob.a085951 | pages=533–539}}

Calcium oxalate crystals can also form in animals, and kidney stones are a form of these ultrastructural features. Theoretically, nanobacteria could be used to decrease the formation of calcium oxalate kidney stones.{{cite journal | last=Goldfarb | first=David S. | title=Microorganisms and Calcium Oxalate Stone Disease | journal=Nephron Physiology | volume=98 | issue=2 | date=2004-10-19 | issn=1660-2137 | doi=10.1159/000080264 | pages=48–54| pmid=15499215 | s2cid=29369994 }}

Controlling ultrastructure has engineering uses for controlling the behavior of cells. Cells respond readily to changes in their extracellular matrix (ECM), so manufacturing materials to mimic ECM allows for increased control over the cell cycle and protein expression.{{cite book |last=Khademhosseini |first=Ali |year=2008 |title=Micro and nanoengineering of the cell microenvironment: technologies and applications |location=Boston |publisher=Artech House |url=http://public.eblib.com/choice/publicfullrecord.aspx?p=456882 | isbn=978-1-59693-149-7}}

Many cells, such as plants, produce calcium oxalate crystals, and these crystals are usually considered ultrastructural components of plant cells. Calcium oxalate is a material that is used to manufacture ceramic glazes [6], and it also has biomaterial properties. For culturing cells and tissue engineering, this crystal is found in fetal bovine serum, and is an important aspect of the extracellular matrix for culturing cells.{{cite journal | last1=Pedraza | first1=Claudio E. | last2=Chien | first2=Yung‐Ching | last3=McKee | first3=Marc D. | title=Calcium oxalate crystals in fetal bovine serum: Implications for cell culture, phagocytosis and biomineralization studies in vitro | journal=Journal of Cellular Biochemistry | volume=103 | issue=5 | date=2008 | issn=0730-2312 | doi=10.1002/jcb.21515 | pages=1379–1393| pmid=17879965 | s2cid=43217705 }}

Ultrastructure is an important factor to consider when engineering dental implants. Since these devices interface directly with bone, their incorporation to surrounding tissue is necessary to optimal device function. It has been found that applying a load to a healing dental implant allows for increased osseointegration with facial bones.{{cite journal | last1=Meyer | first1=U. | last2=Joos | first2=U. | last3=Mythili | first3=J. | last4=Stamm | first4=T. | last5=Hohoff | first5=A. | last6=Fillies | first6=T. | last7=Stratmann | first7=U. | last8=Wiesmann | first8=H.P. | title=Ultrastructural characterization of the implant/bone interface of immediately loaded dental implants | journal=Biomaterials | volume=25 | issue=10 | date=2004 | doi=10.1016/j.biomaterials.2003.08.070 | pages=1959–1967| pmid=14738860 }} Analyzing the ultrastructure surrounding an implant is useful in determining how biocompatible it is and how the body reacts to it. One study found implanting granules of a biomaterial derived from pig bone caused the human body to incorporate the material into its ultrastructure and form new bone.{{cite journal | last1=Orsini | first1=Giovanna | last2=Scarano | first2=Antonio | last3=Piattelli | first3=Maurizio | last4=Piccirilli | first4=Marcello | last5=Caputi | first5=Sergio | last6=Piattelli | first6=Adriano | title=Histologic and Ultrastructural Analysis of Regenerated Bone in Maxillary Sinus Augmentation Using a Porcine Bone–Derived Biomaterial | journal=Journal of Periodontology | volume=77 | issue=12 | date=2006 | issn=0022-3492 | doi=10.1902/jop.2006.060181 | pages=1984–1990| pmid=17209782 }}

Hydroxyapatite is a biomaterial used to interface medical devices directly to bone by ultrastructure. Grafts can be created along with 𝛃-tricalcium phosphate, and it has been observed that surrounding bone tissue with incorporate the new material into its extracellular matrix.{{cite journal | last1=Fujita | first1=Rumi | last2=Yokoyama | first2=Atsuro | last3=Nodasaka | first3=Yoshinobu | last4=Kohgo | first4=Takao | last5=Kawasaki | first5=Takao | title=Ultrastructure of ceramic-bone interface using hydroxyapatite and β-tricalcium phosphate ceramics and replacement mechanism of β-tricalcium phosphate in bone | journal=Tissue and Cell | volume=35 | issue=6 | date=2003 | doi=10.1016/S0040-8166(03)00067-3 | pages=427–440| pmid=14580356 }} Hydroxyapatite is a highly biocompatible material, and its ultrastructural features, such as crystalline orientation, can be controlled carefully to ensure optimal biocompatibility.{{cite journal | last1=Zhuang | first1=Zhi | last2=Miki | first2=Takuya | last3=Yumoto | first3=Midori | last4=Konishi | first4=Toshiisa | last5=Aizawa | first5=Mamoru | title=Ultrastructural Observation of Hydroxyapatite Ceramics with Preferred Orientation to a-plane Using High-resolution Transmission Electron Microscopy | journal=Procedia Engineering | volume=36 | date=2012 | doi=10.1016/j.proeng.2012.03.019 | pages=121–127| doi-access=free }} Proper crystal fiber orientation can make introduced minerals, like hydroxyapatite, more similar to the biological materials they intend to replace. Controlling ultrastructural features makes obtaining specific material properties possible.

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Category:Electron microscopy

Category:Cell anatomy