Upper-atmospheric lightning#ELVES

There are several types of TLEs, the most common being sprites. Sprites are flashes of bright red light that occur above storm systems. C-sprites (short for "columniform sprites") is the name given to vertical columns of red light. C-sprites exhibiting tendrils are sometimes called "carrot sprites". Other types of TLEs include sprite halos, ghosts, blue jets, gigantic jets, pixies, gnomes, trolls, blue starters, and ELVESs. The acronym ELVES (“emission of light and very low frequency perturbations due to electromagnetic pulse sources”) refers to a singular event which is commonly thought of as being plural. TLEs are secondary phenomena that occur in the upper atmosphere in association with underlying thunderstorm lightning.{{Cite web|url=https://www.sciencenews.org/article/space-station-detectors-found-source-weird-blue-jet-lightning|title = Space station detectors found the source of weird 'blue jet' lightning|date = January 21, 2021}}

TLEs generally last anywhere from less than a millisecond to more than 2 seconds. The first video recording of a TLE was captured unexpectedly on July 6, 1989 when researcher R.C Franz left a camera running overnight to view the night sky. When reviewing the footage two finger-like vertical images were seen on two film frames. The next known recordings of a TLE were taken on October 21, 1989 during orbits 44 and 45 of Space Shuttle mission STS-34, which was conducting the Mesoscale Lightning Observation Experiment.

TLEs have been captured by a variety of optical recording systems, with the total number of recent recorded events (early 2009) estimated at many tens-of-thousands. The global rate of TLE occurrence has been estimated from satellite (FORMOSAT-2) observations to be several million events per year.

In the 1920s, the Scottish physicist C.T.R. Wilson predicted that electrical breakdown should occur in the atmosphere high above large thunderstorms.C. T. R. Wilson (1924) "The electric field of a thundercloud and some of its effects," Proceedings of the Physical Society of London, 37 (1) : 32D-37D. Available on-line at: [http://www.storm-t.iag.usp.br/pub/ACA0330/papers/Wilson_electricfield_thunderstorms_1924.pdf University of São Paulo] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140310135835/http://www.storm-t.iag.usp.br/pub/ACA0330/papers/Wilson_electricfield_thunderstorms_1924.pdf |date=2014-03-10 }}.Earle R. Williams (November 2001) "Sprites, elves, and glow discharge tubes," Physics Today, 54 (11) : 41–47. Available on-line at: [http://physicstoday.org/journals/doc/PHTOAD-ft/vol_54/iss_11/41_1.shtml?bypassSSO=1 Physics Today] {{webarchive|url=https://archive.today/20120527085255/http://physicstoday.org/journals/doc/PHTOAD-ft/vol_54/iss_11/41_1.shtml?bypassSSO=1 |date=May 27, 2012}}. In ensuing decades, high altitude electrical discharges were reported by aircraft pilots and discounted by meteorologists until the first direct visual evidence was documented in 1989{{Cite journal |last=Vaughan Jr. |first=O. H. |last2=Vonnegut |first2=B. |date=1989 |title=Recent observations of lightning discharges from the top of a thundercloud into the clear air above |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1029/JD094iD11p13179 |journal=Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres |language=en |volume=94 |issue=D11 |pages=13179–13182 |doi=10.1029/JD094iD11p13179 |issn=2156-2202}}. Several years later, the optical signatures of these events were named 'sprites' by researchers to avoid inadvertently implying physical properties that were, at the time, still unknown{{Cite journal |last=Lyons |first=Walter A. |date=1994 |title=Characteristics of luminous structures in the stratosphere above thunderstorms as imaged by low-light video |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1029/94GL00560 |journal=Geophysical Research Letters |language=en |volume=21 |issue=10 |pages=875–878 |doi=10.1029/94GL00560 |issn=1944-8007}}. The terms red sprites and blue jets gained popularity after a video clip was circulated following an aircraft research campaign to study sprites in 1994.{{citation needed|date=September 2022}}

{{Main|Sprite (lightning)}}File:StarStaX 00017 f23990-00017 f24033 eclaircirV5.jpg seen from Antibes]]

Sprites are large-scale electrical discharges which occur high above a thunderstorm cloud, or cumulonimbus, giving rise to a quite varied range of visual shapes. They are triggered by the discharges of positive lightning between the thundercloud and the ground.{{cite journal |last1=Boccippio |first1=D. J. |last2=Williams |first2=E. R. |last3=Heckman |first3=S. J. |last4=Lyons |first4=W. A. |last5=Baker |first5=I. T. |last6=Boldi |first6=R. |title=Sprites, ELF Transients, and Positive Ground Strokes |journal=Science |volume=269 |pages=1088–1091 |date=August 1995 |doi=10.1126/science.269.5227.1088 |pmid=17755531 |issue=5227 |bibcode=1995Sci...269.1088B|s2cid=8840716}} The phenomena were named after the mischievous sprite, e.g., Shakespeare's Ariel or Puck,From [https://books.google.com/books?id=dtBrs114-NEC&pg=PA128 page 128] of: John Friedman, Out of the Blue: A History of Lightning (New York, New York: Random House, Inc., 2008):
"Dr. Davis Sentman of the University of Alaska, one of the few scientists studying these luminous, ghostlike phenomena [i.e., sprites], named the eerie flashes of colored lights after Shakespeare's mischievous spirits of the air — Ariel in The Tempest and Puck in "A Midsummer Night's Dream." and is also a backronym for stratospheric/mesospheric perturbations resulting from intense thunderstorm electrification.{{Cite web | url=http://news.psu.edu/story/140845/1997/09/01/research/sprites-and-elves-atmosphere | title=Sprites and Elves in the Atmosphere | Penn State University}} They normally are colored reddish-orange or greenish-blue, with hanging tendrils below and arcing branches above. They can also be preceded by a reddish halo, known as a sprite halo. They often occur in clusters, reaching {{convert|50|km|mi}} to {{convert|90|km|mi}} above the Earth's surface. Sprites have been witnessed thousands of times.Walter A. Lyons and Michey D. Schmidt (2003). [http://ams.confex.com/ams/pdfpapers/65547.pdf P1.39 The Discovery of Red Sprites as an Opportunity For Informal Science Education.] American Meteorological Society. Retrieved on February 18, 2009. Sprites have been held responsible for otherwise unexplained accidents involving high-altitude vehicular operations above thunderstorms.{{cite web |title=Full report on the uncontrolled free fall of a stratospheric balloon payload provoked by a Sprite |url=http://stratocat.com.ar/fichas-e/1989/PAL-19890609.htm |author=STRATOCAT – Stratospheric balloons history and present}}

File:RedSprite.jpg

File:Sprites-Argentina-2014-02-02.png

File:Red sprite lightning seen from ISS (ISS031-E-010712).jpg|A red sprite as seen from the ISS

File:Red sprite in Hungary.jpg

Although jets are considered to be a type of upper-atmospheric lightning, it has been found that they are components of tropospheric lightning and a type of cloud-to-air discharge that initiates within a thunderstorm and travels upwards. In contrast, other types of TLEs are not electrically connected with tropospheric lightning—despite being triggered by it. The two main types of jets are blue jets and gigantic jets. Blue starters are considered to be a weaker form of blue jets.{{Citation needed|date=August 2021}}

File:Gigantic jet NOIRLab.jpg, Hawaii|alt=Photograph of a distant gigantic jet atop a thunderstorm]]

Blue jets emanate upwards from cloud tops at speeds of about {{cvt|100|–|140|km/s|round=10}} and have a conical shape extending up to around {{cvt|50|km|round=5}} in altitude, lasting 200 to 300 milliseconds.{{cite journal |last1=Siingh |first1=Devendraa |last2=Singh |first2=R.P. |last3=Kumar |first3=Sarvan |last4=Dharmaraj |first4=T. |last5=Singh |first5=Abhay K. |last6=Singh |first6=Ashok K. |last7=Patil |first7=M.N. |last8=Singh |first8=Shubha |title=Lightning and middle atmospheric discharges in the atmosphere |journal=Journal of Atmospheric and Solar-Terrestrial Physics |date=November 2015 |volume=134 |pages=78–101 |doi=10.1016/j.jastp.2015.10.001}} They are also brighter than sprites and, as implied by their name, are blue in color. The color is believed to be due to a set of blue and near-ultraviolet emission lines from neutral and ionized molecular nitrogen. Blue jets are believed to be initiated as "normal" lightning discharges between the upper positive charge region in a thundercloud and a negative "screening layer" present above this charge region. The positive end of the leader network fills the negative charge region before the negative end fills the positive charge region, and the positive leader subsequently exits the cloud and propagates upward. Blue jets are mainly generated by thunderstorms with high rates of negative cloud-to-ground lightning. It was previously believed that blue jets were not directly related to lightning flashes, and that the presence of hail somehow led to their occurrence.[http://www.psu.edu/ur/2001/bluejets.html Fractal Models of Blue Jets, Blue Starters Show Similarity, Differences to Red Sprites] They were first recorded on October 21, 1989, on a monochrome video of a thunderstorm on the horizon taken from the Space Shuttle as it passed over Australia. Blue jets occur much less frequently than sprites. By 2007, fewer than a hundred images had been obtained. The majority of these images, which include the first color imagery, are associated with a single thunderstorm. These were taken in a series of 1994 aircraft flights to study sprites.'Red Sprites & Blue Jets – the video'[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1xVThAFfP0E], 'Blue Jets & Blue Starters – the video'[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YSeTy-EBe4o]. More recently, the source and formation of blue jets has been observed from the International Space Station.

Blue starters were discovered on video from a night time research flight around thunderstormsExamples may be seen in the clip 'Blue Jets & Blue Starters – the video' [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YSeTy-EBe4o]. and appear to be "an upward moving luminous phenomenon closely related to blue jets."{{cite journal |url=https://lightning.nsstc.nasa.gov/bookshelf/pubs/sprites.html |title=The Role of the Space Shuttle Videotapes in the Discovery of Sprites, Jets, and Elves |journal=Journal of Atmospheric and Solar-Terrestrial Physics |first1=W. L. |last1=Boeck |first2=O. H. |last2=Vaughan |first3=R. J. |last3=Blakesleee |first4=B. |last4=Vonnegut |first5=M. |last5=Brook |display-authors=1 |volume=60 |issue=7–9 |pages=669–677 |date=May 1998 |doi=10.1016/S1364-6826(98)00025-X |bibcode=1998JASTP..60..669B|url-access=subscription }} They appear to be shorter and brighter than blue jets, reaching altitudes of only up to 20 km.[http://www.spritesandjets.com/bluejets.htm Blue jets] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080511191013/http://www.spritesandjets.com/bluejets.htm |date=May 11, 2008}} "Blue starters appear to be blue jets that never quite make it," according to Dr. Victor P. Pasko, associate professor of electrical engineering.[https://spacenews.com/fractal-models-of-blue-jets-blue-starters-show-similarity-differences-to-red-sprites/ Fractal models of blue jets, blue starters show similarity, differences to red sprites]

Where blue jets are believed to initiate between the upper positive charge region and a negative screening layer directly above this region, gigantic jets appear to initiate as an intracloud flash between the middle negative and upper positive charge regions in the thundercloud. The negatively charged leader then escapes upward from the cloud toward the ionosphere before it can discharge within the cloud. Gigantic jets reach higher altitudes than blue jets, terminating at 90 km.{{cite journal |last1=Su |first1=H. T. |last2=Hsu |first2=R. R. |last3=Chen |first3=A. B. |last4=Wang |first4=Y. C. |last5=Hsiao |first5=W. S. |last6=Lai |first6=W. C. |last7=Lee |first7=L. C. |last8=Sato |first8=M. |last9=Fukunishi |first9=H. |title=Gigantic jets between a thundercloud and the ionosphere |journal=Nature |date=June 2003 |volume=423 |issue=6943 |pages=974–976 |doi=10.1038/nature01759 |pmid=12827198 |bibcode=2003Natur.423..974S |s2cid=4401869 |access-date=3 June 2022 |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/nature01759 |language=en |issn=1476-4687|url-access=subscription }}{{cite journal |last1=Boggs |first1=Levi D. |last2=Liu |first2=Ningyu |last3=Riousset |first3=Jeremy A. |last4=Shi |first4=Feng |last5=Lazarus |first5=Steven |last6=Splitt |first6=Michael |last7=K. Rassoul |first7=Hamid |title=Thunderstorm charge structures producing gigantic jets |journal=Scientific Reports |date=27 December 2018 |volume=8 |issue=1 |pages=18085 |doi=10.1038/s41598-018-36309-z |pmid=30591709 |pmc=6308230 |bibcode=2018NatSR...818085B }} While they may appear to be visually similar to carrot-type sprites, gigantic jets differ in that they are not associated with cloud to ground lightning and propagate upward from the cloud at a slower rate.{{cite journal |last1=Surkov |first1=Vadim V. |last2=Hayakawa |first2=Masashi |title=Progress in the Study of Transient Luminous and Atmospheric Events: A Review |journal=Surveys in Geophysics |date=September 2020 |volume=41 |issue=5 |pages=1101–1142 |doi=10.1007/s10712-020-09597-2 |bibcode=2020SGeo...41.1101S |s2cid=219157013 |access-date=3 June 2022 |url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10712-020-09597-2|url-access=subscription }}

On September 14, 2001, scientists at the Arecibo Observatory photographed a gigantic jet—double the height of those previously observed—reaching around {{cvt|70|km|mi|round=5}} into the atmosphere.{{Cite journal |doi = 10.1038/416152a|pmid = 11894087|title = Electrical discharge from a thundercloud top to the lower ionosphere|journal = Nature|volume = 416|issue = 6877|pages = 152–154|year = 2002|last1 = Pasko|first1 = Victor P.|last2 = Stanley|first2 = Mark A.|last3 = Mathews|first3 = John D.|last4 = Inan|first4 = Umran S.|last5 = Wood|first5 = Troy G.|bibcode = 2002Natur.416..152P|s2cid = 1933570}} The jet was located above a thunderstorm over an ocean, and lasted under a second. The jet was initially observed to be traveling up at around {{cvt|50|km/s|mph km/h||}} at a speed similar to typical lightning, increased to {{cvt|160|and(-)|270|km/s|mph km/h}}, but then split in two and sped upward with speeds of at least {{cvt|2000|km/s|mph km/h||}} to the ionosphere where it then spread out in a bright burst of light.

On July 22, 2002, five gigantic jets between {{convert|60|and|70|km|round=5}} in length were observed over the South China Sea from Taiwan, reported in Nature.{{Cite web |url=http://sprite.phys.ncku.edu.tw/new/news/0626_presss/nature01759_r.pdf |title=Gigantic jets between a thundercloud and the ionosphere |access-date=April 21, 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070702211900/http://sprite.phys.ncku.edu.tw/new/news/0626_presss/nature01759_r.pdf |archive-date=July 2, 2007 |url-status=dead}}{{Cite web |url=http://physicsworld.com/cws/article/news/17758 |title=Giant jets caught on camera |access-date=2008-06-02 |archive-date=2011-05-19 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110519200343/http://physicsworld.com/cws/article/news/17758 |url-status=dead }} The jets lasted under a second, with shapes likened by the researchers to giant trees and carrots.

On November 10, 2012, the Chinese Science Bulletin reported a gigantic jet event observed over a thunderstorm in mainland China on August 12, 2010. "GJ event that was clearly recorded in eastern China (storm center located at 35.6°N,119.8°E, near the Huanghai Sea)".{{Cite journal |title=Chinese Science Bulletin 2012, Vol. 57 DOI: 10.1007/s11434-012-5486-3 |journal= Chinese Science Bulletin|volume= 57|issue= 36|pages= 4791|doi=10.1007/s11434-012-5486-3 |bibcode = 2012ChSBu..57.4791Y|last1 = Yang|first1 = Jing|last2= Feng|first2= Guili|year= 2012|doi-access= free}}

On February 2, 2014, the Oro Verde Observatory of Argentina reported ten or more gigantic jet events observed over a thunderstorm in Entre Ríos south. The storm center was located at 33°S, 60°W, near the city of Rosario.{{citation needed|date=February 2014}}

On August 13, 2016, photographer Phebe Pan caught a clear wide-angle photo of a gigantic jet on a wide-angle lens while shooting Perseid meteors atop Shi Keng Kong peak in Guangdong province{{Cite web|url=http://spaceweather.com/archive.php?view=1&day=16&month=08&year=2016|title=Spaceweather.com Time Machine|website=spaceweather.com|access-date=August 16, 2016}} and Li Hualong captured the same jet from a more distant location in Jiahe, Hunan, China.{{Cite web | url=http://spaceweathergallery.com/indiv_upload.php?upload_id=128464 | title=Sprites Lightning}}

On March 28, 2017, photographer Jeff Miles captured four gigantic jets over Australia.{{cite web|url=https://watchers.news/2017/03/31/gigantic-jets-over-pilbara-australia-on-march-28-2017/ |title=Gigantic jets over Australia|date=March 31, 2017 }}

On July 24, 2017, the Gemini Cloudcam at the Mauna Kea Observatory in Hawaii captured several gigantic jets as well as ionosphere-height gravity waves during one thunderstorm.{{Cite web|title=Gigantic Jet Lightning Near Hawaii|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZMc0_k6CKd0 |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211215/ZMc0_k6CKd0 |archive-date=2021-12-15 |url-status=live|website=youtube.com| date=July 25, 2017 |access-date=December 13, 2021}}{{cbignore}}

On October 16, 2019, pilot Chris Holmes captured a high-resolution video of a gigantic jet from 35,000 feet (10.6 km) above the Gulf of Mexico near the Yucatán Peninsula.Phillips, T. (October 25, 2019). Close encounter with a gigantic jet. Retrieved from https://spaceweatherarchive.com/2019/10/25/close-encounter-with-a-gigantic-jet/ From 35 miles (56 km), Holmes's video shows a blue streamer reach up from the top of a thunderstorm to the ionosphere, becoming red at the top. Only then does a brilliant white lightning leader crawl slowly from the top of the cloud, reaching about 10% of the height of the gigantic jet before fading.

On September 20, 2021, at 10:41 pm (02:41 UTC) facing NE from Cabo Rojo, Puerto Rico, photographer Frankie Lucena recorded a video of a gigantic jet plasma event which occurred over a thunderstorm in the area.{{Cite web | url=https://apod.nasa.gov/apod/ap210929.html | title=NASA Picture of the Day}}

On 15 February 2024, photographer JJ Rao ([https://naturebyjj.com/ Nature by JJ]) captured a gigantic jet in high-resolution slow-motion video from Derby, in the Kimberley Region of Western Australia.{{Citation |title=Super Rare Gigantic Jet 'Lightning' in Slow Motion | date=February 17, 2024 |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1B-2kzSMQX4 |access-date=2024-02-26 |language=en}}

File:ELVES_photo_by_Valter_Binotto_27-Mar-2023.jpg

ELVES often appear as a dim, flattened, expanding glow around {{convert|400|km|mi|abbr=on}} in diameter that lasts for, typically, just one millisecond.[http://alum.mit.edu/www/cpbl/elves ELVES, a primer: Ionospheric Heating By the Electromagnetic Pulses from Lightning] They occur in the ionosphere {{convert|100|km|mi|abbr=on}} above the ground over thunderstorms. Their color was unknown for some time, but is now known to be red. ELVES were first recorded on another shuttle mission, this time recorded off French Guiana on October 7, 1990. That ELVES was discovered in the Shuttle Video by the Mesoscale Lightning Experiment (MLE) team at Marshall Space Flight Center, AL led by the Principal Investigator, Otha H."Skeet" Vaughan, Jr.{{Citation needed|date=August 2021}}

ELVES is a whimsical acronym for emissions of light and very Low frequency perturbations due to electromagnetic pulse sources.[http://www.thefreedictionary.com/elves The Free Dictionary – ELVES] This refers to the process by which the light is generated; the excitation of nitrogen molecules due to electron collisions (the electrons possibly having been energized by the electromagnetic pulse caused by a discharge from an underlying thunderstorm).{{Cite web| last = Valter Binotto| title = Valter Binotto on Instagram| work = Instagram| access-date = 2023-04-05| date = 2023-04-05| url = https://www.instagram.com/p/CqpwfZct3Lg/}}{{Cite web| last = Filippo Thiery| title = Filippo Thiery on Instagram| work = Instagram| access-date = 2023-04-05| date = 2023-04-04| url = https://www.instagram.com/reel/CqoCveFOUg8/}}

TROLLs (transient red optical luminous lineaments) occur after strong sprites, and appear as red spots with faint tails, and on higher-speed cameras, appear as a rapid series of events, starting as a red glow that forms after a sprite tendril, that later produces a red streak downward from itself. They are similar to jets.{{Cite web |last=Alden |first=Andrew |date=2018-08-15 |title=Sprites and Their Siblings |url=https://www.thoughtco.com/sprites-and-their-siblings-1441223 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210120045608/https://www.thoughtco.com/sprites-and-their-siblings-1441223 |archive-date=2021-01-20 |access-date=2020-07-10 |website=ThoughtCo |language=en}}{{Cite web|title=Atmospheric-Phenomena|url=http://castle-kaneloon.tripod.com/files/Atmospheric-Phenomena.html|access-date=2020-07-10|website=castle-kaneloon.tripod.com}}

Pixies were first observed during the STEPS program during the summer of 2000, a multi-organizational field program investigating the electrical characteristics over thunderstorms on the High Plains. A series of unusual, white luminous events atop the thunderstorm were observed over a 20-minute period, lasting for an average of 16 milliseconds each. They were later dubbed 'pixies'. These pixies are less than 100 meters across, and are not related to lightning.

Ghosts (greenish optical emission from sprite tops) are faint, green glows that appear within the footprint of a red sprite, persisting after the red has dissipated and re-igniting with the onset of subsequent sprite events.{{Cite web|last=Phillips|first=Dr Tony|date=2020-05-31|title=Introducing, the Green Ghost|url=https://spaceweatherarchive.com/2020/05/31/introducing-the-green-ghost/|access-date=2020-07-10|website=Spaceweather.com|language=en}}{{Cite journal |last=Huang |first=Xin |last2=Lu |first2=Gaopeng |last3=Liu |first3=Feifan |last4=Cheng |first4=Zhengwei |last5=Lucena |first5=Frankie |last6=Liu |first6=Yu |last7=Xue |first7=Xianghui |last8=Wang |first8=Yongping |last9=Cohen |first9=Morris B. |last10=Ashcraft |first10=Thomas |last11=Smith |first11=Paul |last12=Schyma |first12=Hank |date=2024-10-28 |title=Enhancement of Green Ghosts Due To Recurrence of Sprite Element |url=https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1029/2024GL108397 |journal=Geophysical Research Letters |language=en |volume=51 |issue=20 |doi=10.1029/2024GL108397 |issn=0094-8276|doi-access=free }} Though possible examples of ghosts can be seen in historical images, ghosts were first noted as an exclusive phenomenon by storm chasers Hank Schyma and {{usurped|1=[https://web.archive.org/web/20230507172824/https://www.spritechaser.com/ Paul M Smith]}} in 2019.{{Cite web|last=Schyma|first=Hank|date=May 25, 2019|title=Red sprites and blue jets explained - New discovery!|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tGPQ5kzJ9Tg |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211215/tGPQ5kzJ9Tg |archive-date=2021-12-15 |url-status=live|website=YouTube}}{{cbignore}}

The first spectroscopy study to analyze the dynamics and chemistry of ghosts was led by the Atmospheric Electricity group of the [https://www.iaa.es Institute of Astrophysics of Andalusia (IAA)]. This experimental campaign reported the main contributors to the greenish hue of a single event recorded in 2019 to be atomic iron and nickel, molecular nitrogen and ionic molecular oxygen. A weak -but certain- contribution of atomic oxygen, and atomic sodium and ionic silicon were also detected.{{Cite journal |last1=Passas-Varo |first1=María |last2=Van der Velde |first2=Oscar |last3=Gordillo-Vázquez |first3=Francisco J. |last4=Gómez-Martín |first4=Juan Carlos |last5=Sánchez |first5=Justo |last6=Pérez-Invernón |first6=Francisco J. |last7=Sánchez-Ramírez |first7=Rubén |last8=García-Comas |first8=Maya |last9=Montanyà |first9=Joan |date=2023-12-12 |title=Spectroscopy of a mesospheric ghost reveals iron emissions |journal=Nature Communications |language=en |volume=14 |issue=1 |pages=7810 |doi=10.1038/s41467-023-42892-1 |issn=2041-1723|doi-access=free |pmid=38086836 |pmc=10716262 |bibcode=2023NatCo..14.7810P }}

A gnome is a type of lightning that is a small, brief spike of light that points upward from a thunderstorm cloud's anvil top, caused as strong updrafts push moist air above the anvil. It lasts for only a few microseconds. It is about 200 meters wide, and is a maximum of 1 kilometer in height. Its color is unknown as it has only been observed in black-and-white footage. Most sources unofficially refer to them as "Gnomes".{{Cite web|last1=Lyons|first1=Walter|last2=Nelson|first2=Thomas|last3=Armstrong|first3=Russell|last4=Pasko|first4=Victor|last5=Stanley|first5=Mark|date=19 November 2002|title=Upward Electrical Discharges From Thunderstorm Tops|url=http://www.ee.psu.edu/Directory/FacultyInfo/Pasko/Publications/lyons-jets.pdf}}

{{Portal|Weather|Spaceflight}}

• Aurora
• Heat lightning
• Schumann resonances
• Sprite (lightning)
• St. Elmo's fire
• Steve (atmospheric phenomenon)

{{reflist}}

{{Commons category|Transient luminous events}}

• [http://www.eurosprite.net/ Homepage of the Eurosprite campaign, itself part of the CAL (Coupled Atmospheric Layers) research group]
• [https://web.archive.org/web/20040427154624/http://www.uh.edu/admin/media/nr/archives99/0399/lightning.html March 2, 1999, University of Houston: UH Physicists Pursue Lightning-Like Mysteries] Quote: "...Red sprites and blue jets are brief but powerful lightning-like flashes that appear at altitudes of 40–100 km (25–60 miles) above thunderstorms..."
• [http://www.uh.edu/research/spg/Sprites99.html Ground and Balloon-Borne Observations of Sprites and Jets]
• Barrington-Leigh, C. P., "[http://alum.mit.edu/www/cpbl/elves ELVES] : Ionospheric Heating By the Electromagnetic Pulses from Lightning (A primer)". Space Science Lab, Berkeley.
• "[http://www.physics.otago.ac.nz/space/darwin97/darwin97.html Darwin Sprites '97]". Space Physics Group, University of Otago.
• Gibbs, W. Wayt, "[https://web.archive.org/web/20070513120802/http://www-star.stanford.edu/~vlf/optical/press/elves97sciam/ Sprites and ELVES : Lightning's strange cousins flicker faster than light itself]". San Francisco. ScientificAmerican.com.
• Barrington-Leigh, Christopher, "[https://web.archive.org/web/20070310212748/http://www-star.stanford.edu/~vlf/Antarctica/Palmer/ VLF Research at Palmer Station]".
• [https://web.archive.org/web/20061221062532/http://www.spritesandjets.com/ Sprites, jets and TLE pictures and articles]
• [https://web.archive.org/web/20070722011948/http://media.newscientist.com/data/images/ns/av/dn12044V1.mpg High speed video (10,000 frame/s) taken by Hans Stenbaek-Nielsen, University of Alaska]
• [http://www.livescience.com/environment/070612_sprite_secrets.html Video Reveals 'Sprite' Lightning Secrets], Livescience article, 2007.
• [http://www.livescience.com/php/video/player.php?video_id=080607sprites Video evidence]
• {{APOD |date=August 29, 2007 |title=Gigantic Jets Over Oklahoma}} Pictures and video of two separate gigantic jets above Oklahoma
• [https://web.archive.org/web/20080607021834/http://band.unk.edu/src/naturearticle.html Gigantic jets between a thundercloud and the ionosphere.]
• [https://web.archive.org/web/20030629174455/http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2003/06/0625_030625_atmospherethunder.html Huge Mystery Flashes Seen In Outer Atmosphere]
• [https://web.archive.org/web/20080924040104/http://www.sky-fire.tv/index.cgi/spritegallery.html Sprite Gallery]
• http://webarchive.loc.gov/all/20020914103454/http://elf.gi.alaska.edu/
• [https://vimeo.com/artfx/theendless The Endless, Short film inspired by Sprite]
• [https://ztresearch.blog/education/cloud-flashes/ Cloud Flashes {{!}} ZT Research]

{{Atmospheric electricity}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Upper-Atmospheric Lightning}}

Category:Electrical phenomena

Category:Lightning

Category:Terrestrial plasmas

Category:Space plasmas

Category:Weather hazards

Category:Light sources