Werner Israel

{{Infobox scientist

| name = Werner Israel

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| birth_place = Berlin, Brandenburg, Prussia, Germany

| birth_date = {{Birth date|1931|10|04}}

| death_date = {{Death date and age|2022|05|18|1931|10|04}}

| death_place = Victoria, British Columbia, Canada

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| nationality = German, Canadian

| fields = Gravitational physics

| workplaces = University of Alberta,University of Victoria

| alma_mater = University of Cape Town, Trinity College Dublin

| doctoral_advisor = John Lighton Synge

| thesis_title = Basic topics of the relativistic theory of shock waves

| thesis_year = 1959

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| known_for = No hair theorem, equilibrium state of a black hole, internal structures of black holes

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Werner Israel, {{Post-nominals|country=CAN|OC|FRSC|FRS}} (October 4, 1931 – May 18, 2022) was a theoretical physicist known for his contributions to gravitational theory, and especially to the understanding of black holes.

Biography

Israel was born in Berlin, Germany in 1931. His family fled Nazi Germany in 1936 and settled in Cape Town, South Africa, where he was raised. He was interested in astronomy and cosmology from a young age. For four years, when his parents were seriously ill, Israel and his brother lived in an orphanage. Israel received his B.Sc. and M.Sc. from the University of Cape Town, and his Ph.D. from Trinity College, Dublin, under the direction of John Synge. In 1958, Israel accepted a faculty position at the University of Alberta in Edmonton, where he remained as professor until his retirement in 1996. Following his retirement, Israel was Adjunct Professor of Physics and Astronomy at the University of Victoria in Victoria, British Columbia. He remained active in research for another two decades. During the Dublin years, Werner Israel met and married Inge Margulies. They had a son Mark and a daughter Pia.

Scientific Work

Werner Israel is primarily known for his work on general relativity, especially on black hole theory.

In 1966, relatively early in his career, Israel analyzed the dynamics of thin shells of matter in general relativity, providing a geometrical description in terms of the second fundamental form of the hypersurface on which the matter is supported.{{cite journal | last=Israel | first=W. | title=Singular hypersurfaces and thin shells in general relativity | journal=Il Nuovo Cimento B |series=Series 10 | volume=44 | issue=1 | date=1966 | issn=0369-3554 | doi=10.1007/BF02710419 | pages=1–14| bibcode=1966NCimB..44....1I }} Partly because many interesting examples can be constructed using such thin shells,{{According to whom|date=May 2025}} this has become Israel's most cited paper, with thousands of citations. Interest in this paper has increased over time; it has been cited most heavily since the year 2000.{{Citation needed|date=May 2025}} Israel returned to the topic of thin shells in general relativity many years later.{{cite journal | last1=Barrabès | first1=C. | last2=Israel | first2=W. | title=Thin shells in general relativity and cosmology: The lightlike limit | journal=Physical Review D | volume=43 | issue=4 | date=1991-02-15 | issn=0556-2821 | doi=10.1103/PhysRevD.43.1129 | pages=1129–1142| pmid=10013483 | bibcode=1991PhRvD..43.1129B }}

Israel's first important contribution to black hole theory came in 1967 when he showed that the Schwarzschild solution, which describes a spherically symmetric, uncharged black hole, is the unique static black hole solution of Einstein's equations (without matter fields).{{cite journal | last=Israel | first=Werner | title=Event Horizons in Static Vacuum Space-Times | journal=Physical Review | volume=164 | issue=5 | date=1967-12-25 | issn=0031-899X | doi=10.1103/PhysRev.164.1776 | pages=1776–1779| bibcode=1967PhRv..164.1776I }} Israel extended this result to Einstein-Maxwell theory, showing that in that case, the unique static black hole solution is the Reissner-Nordstrom solution.{{cite journal | last=Israel | first=Werner | title=Event horizons in static electrovac space-times | journal=Communications in Mathematical Physics | volume=8 | issue=3 | date=1968 | issn=0010-3616 | doi=10.1007/BF01645859 | pages=245–260| bibcode=1968CMaPh...8..245I }} It was soon shown by Carter that similar statements hold for black hole solutions that are stationary (not necessarily static).{{cite journal | last=Carter | first=B. | title=Axisymmetric Black Hole Has Only Two Degrees of Freedom | journal=Physical Review Letters | volume=26 | issue=6 | date=1971-02-08 | issn=0031-9007 | doi=10.1103/PhysRevLett.26.331 | pages=331–333| bibcode=1971PhRvL..26..331C }} These results have been summarized by the expression "a black hole has no hair." The hypothesis that gravitational collapse in the real world always leads to a Kerr-Newman black hole (which requires an assumption about cosmic censorship in addition to the theorems of Israel and Carter about stationary solutions) is sometimes called the Carter-Israel conjecture.{{source needed|date=May 2025}}

In 1972, Israel and G. A. Wilson discovered a new class of stationary solutions of Einstein-Maxwell theory,{{cite journal | last1=Israel | first1=Werner | last2=Wilson | first2=Gordon A. | title=A Class of Stationary Electromagnetic Vacuum Fields | journal=Journal of Mathematical Physics | volume=13 | issue=6 | date=1972-06-01 | issn=0022-2488 | doi=10.1063/1.1666066 | pages=865–867| bibcode=1972JMP....13..865I | hdl=1808/17536 | hdl-access=free }} also discovered by Perjés.{{cite journal | last=Perjés | first=Zoltán | title=Solutions of the Coupled Einstein-Maxwell Equations Representing the Fields of Spinning Sources | journal=Physical Review Letters | volume=27 | issue=24 | date=1971-12-13 | issn=0031-9007 | doi=10.1103/PhysRevLett.27.1668 | pages=1668–1670| bibcode=1971PhRvL..27.1668P }} It was later found that, in a large class of supergravity theories, all supersymmetric black hole solutions are of the Israel-Wilson-Perjés form,{{cite journal | last=Tod | first=K.P. | title=All metrics admitting super-covariantly constant spinors | journal=Physics Letters B | volume=121 | issue=4 | date=1983 | doi=10.1016/0370-2693(83)90797-9 | pages=241–244| bibcode=1983PhLB..121..241T }} generalized to include scalar fields. This has been important in subsequent work on the counting of black hole states in supersymmetric theories.

What was perhaps Israel's deepest work,{{according to whom?|date=May 2025}} published in 1976, concerned a black hole in equilibrium with the Hawking radiation that it emits. A quantum system in thermal equilibrium at a nonzero temperature is most directly described by a mixed state -- a thermal density matrix. However, it is possible to "purify" such a thermal density matrix as a pure state of a doubled system -- two copies of the original system. The pure state of a doubled system that describes thermal equilibrium of the original system is nowadays usually called the thermofield double state. (Israel's terminology was slightly different.){{How|date=May 2025}} In view of Stephen Hawking's fundamental discovery of thermal radiation from black holes, a black hole at the quantum level is an example of a thermal system and one can ask how to describe a black hole in thermal equilibrium with radiation. Israel showed that the thermal equilibrium state of a spherically symmetric (Schwarzschild) black hole has a natural geometric interpretation in terms of the maximal analytic extension of the Schwarzschild solution. This extension is “two-sided'' -- it describes a pair of asymptotically flat universes, each containing a black hole, with the two black holes being connected by a "wormhole." Israel interpreted the two sides of the wormhole as the two copies in the thermofield double state.{{cite journal | last=Israel | first=W. | title=Thermo-field dynamics of black holes | journal=Physics Letters A | volume=57 | issue=2 | date=1976 | doi=10.1016/0375-9601(76)90178-X | pages=107–110| bibcode=1976PhLA...57..107I }} This was in parallel with well known work by Hartle and Hawking{{cite journal | last1=Hartle | first1=J. B. | last2=Hawking | first2=S. W. | title=Path-integral derivation of black-hole radiance | journal=Physical Review D | volume=13 | issue=8 | date=1976-04-15 | issn=0556-2821 | doi=10.1103/PhysRevD.13.2188 | pages=2188–2203| bibcode=1976PhRvD..13.2188H }} and the state of a black hole in equilibrium with radiation is sometimes called the Hartle-Hawking-Israel state.{{citation needed|date=May 2025}}

Standard formulations of dissipative thermodynamics are inconsistent with relativity theory as they predict instantaneous propagation of thermal and viscous effects. In the 1970s, Israel reformulated dissipative thermodynamics to be consistent with relativity. As in the case of Israel's work on the thin shells, interest in this work has increased over time and Israel's papers in this area{{cite journal | last=Israel | first=Werner | title=Nonstationary irreversible thermodynamics: A causal relativistic theory | journal=Annals of Physics | volume=100 | issue=1–2 | date=1976 | doi=10.1016/0003-4916(76)90064-6 | pages=310–331| bibcode=1976AnPhy.100..310I }}{{cite journal | last1=Israel | first1=W. | last2=Stewart | first2=J.M. | title=Transient relativistic thermodynamics and kinetic theory | journal=Annals of Physics | volume=118 | issue=2 | date=1979 | doi=10.1016/0003-4916(79)90130-1 | pages=341–372| bibcode=1979AnPhy.118..341I }} have been heavily cited since the year 2000.

In 1989, together with Eric Poisson, Israel pioneered the study of black hole interiors and, following up a suggestion of Roger Penrose, discovered the phenomenon of “mass inflation which can occur near the Cauchy horizon of a black hole.{{cite journal | last1=Poisson | first1=E. | last2=Israel | first2=W. | title=Inner-horizon instability and mass inflation in black holes | journal=Physical Review Letters | volume=63 | issue=16 | date=1989-10-16 | issn=0031-9007 | doi=10.1103/PhysRevLett.63.1663 | pages=1663–1666| pmid=10040638 | bibcode=1989PhRvL..63.1663P }}{{cite journal | last1=Poisson | first1=Eric | last2=Israel | first2=Werner | title=Internal structure of black holes | journal=Physical Review D | volume=41 | issue=6 | date=1990-03-15 | issn=0556-2821 | doi=10.1103/PhysRevD.41.1796 | pages=1796–1809| pmid=10012548 | bibcode=1990PhRvD..41.1796P }} This work has a bearing on the question of “strong cosmic censorship in general relativity and influenced research on strong cosmic censorship in the following decades.{{citation needed|date=May 2025}}

Together with Stephen Hawking, Werner Israel co-edited two volumes on gravitational physics.S. W. Hawking and W. Israel, General Relativity: an Einstein Centenary Survey (Cambridge University Press, 1979).S. W. Hawking and W. Israel, Three Hundred Years of Gravitation (Cambridge University Press, 1987).

Honors

1972: Fellow of the Royal Society of Canada
1974-75: Sherman-Fairchild Distinguished Scholar, CALTECH
1981: Medal of Achievement in Physics of Canadian Association of Physicists
1983: University of Alberta Research Prize in Natural Sciences and Engineering
1984: Izaak Walton Killam Memorial Prize
1986: Fellow of the Royal Society, London
1986-91: Senior Research Fellow at the Canadian Institute for Advanced Research
1994: Officer of the Order of Canada

Werner Israel

Biography

Scientific Work

Honors

References

Further reading