White supremacy#Academic use of the term

White supremacy has ideological foundations that date back to 18th-century scientific racism, the predominant paradigm of human variation that shaped international relations and racial policy from the latter part of the Age of Enlightenment until the late 20th century.{{Cite magazine |last=Curran |first=Andrew |date=2020-07-10 |title=Facing America's History of Racism Requires Facing the Origins of 'Race' as a Concept |url=https://time.com/5865530/history-race-concept/ |access-date=2025-05-22 |magazine=TIME |language=en}}

{{Main|White supremacy in the United States}}

Image:duluth-lynching-postcard.jpg. Two of the black victims are still hanging while the third is on the ground. Lynchings were often public spectacles for the white community to celebrate white supremacy in the U.S., and photos were often sold as postcards.{{cite news |title=History of Lynching in America |url=https://naacp.org/find-resources/history-explained/history-lynching-america |access-date=March 14, 2022 |agency=NAACP |archive-date=January 3, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230103133929/https://naacp.org/find-resources/history-explained/history-lynching-america |url-status=live }}]]

File:Ku Klux Klan parade7 crop.jpg parade in Washington, D.C. in 1926]]

White supremacy was dominant in the United States both before and after the American Civil War, and it persisted for decades after the Reconstruction era.{{cite book | last = Fredrickson | first = George | author-link=George M. Fredrickson | title = White Supremacy | publisher = Oxford University Press | location = Oxford Oxfordshire | year = 1981 |isbn=978-0-19-503042-6 | page = [https://archive.org/details/whitesupremacy00geor/page/162 162] | url = https://archive.org/details/whitesupremacy00geor/page/162 }} The Virginia Slave Codes of 1705 socially segregated white colonists from black enslaved persons, making them disparate groups and hindering their ability to unite. Unity of the commoners was a perceived fear of the Virginia aristocracy, who wished to prevent repeated events such as Bacon's Rebellion, occurring 29 years prior.{{cite book |last1=Fenelon |first1=James V. |title=INDIAN, BLACK AND IRISH: indigenous nations, african peoples, european invasions, 1492-1790 |date=2023 |publisher=ROUTLEDGE |location=S.l. |isbn=9781003315087}} Prior to the Civil War, many wealthy white Americans owned slaves; they tried to justify their economic exploitation of black people by creating a "scientific" theory of white superiority and black inferiority.{{cite journal |jstor=41202851 |title=Uprooting Racism and Racists in the United States |last=Boggs |first=James |author-link=James Boggs (activist) |journal=The Black Scholar |publisher=Paradigm Publishers |date=October 1970 |volume=2 |number=2 |pages=2–5|doi=10.1080/00064246.1970.11431000 }} One such slave owner, future president Thomas Jefferson, wrote in 1785 that blacks were "inferior to the whites in the endowments of body and mind."Paul Finkelman (November 12, 2012). [https://www.nytimes.com/2012/12/01/opinion/the-real-thomas-jefferson.html?pagewanted=all "The Monster of Monticello"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220409233132/https://www.nytimes.com/2012/12/01/opinion/the-real-thomas-jefferson.html?pagewanted=all |date=April 9, 2022 }}. The New York Times. Retrieved July 14, 2020. In the antebellum South, four million slaves were denied freedom.{{cite news|last=Harris|first=Paul|date=2012-06-16|title=How the end of slavery led to starvation and death for millions of black Americans|newspaper=The Guardian|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2012/jun/16/slavery-starvation-civil-war|url-status=live|access-date=2022-01-28|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130914160449/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2012/jun/16/slavery-starvation-civil-war|archive-date=2013-09-14}} The outbreak of the Civil War saw the desire to uphold white supremacy being cited as a cause for state secession[http://avalon.law.yale.edu/19th_century/csa_texsec.asp A Declaration of the Causes which Impel the State of Texas to Secede from the Federal Union] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110811013053/http://avalon.law.yale.edu/19th_century/csa_texsec.asp |date=August 11, 2011 }}: "We hold as undeniable truths that the governments of the various States, and of the confederacy itself, were established exclusively by the white race, for themselves and their posterity; that the African race had no agency in their establishment; that they were rightfully held and regarded as an inferior and dependent race, and in that condition only could their existence in this country be rendered beneficial or tolerable. That in this free government all white men are and of right ought to be entitled to equal civil and political rights; that the servitude of the African race, as existing in these States, is mutually beneficial to both bond and free, and is abundantly authorized and justified by the experience of mankind, and the revealed will of the Almighty Creator, as recognized by all Christian nations; while the destruction of the existing relations between the two races, as advocated by our sectional enemies, would bring inevitable calamities upon both and desolation upon the fifteen slave-holding states." and the formation of the Confederate States of America.[http://teachingamericanhistory.org/library/index.asp?documentprint=76 The controversial "Cornerstone Speech", Alexander H. Stephens (Vice President of the Confederate States), March 21, 1861, Savannah, Georgia] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071117085333/http://teachingamericanhistory.org/library/index.asp?documentprint=76 |date=November 17, 2007 }}: "Our new government is founded upon exactly the opposite idea; its foundations are laid, its cornerstone rests, upon the great truth that the negro is not equal to the white man; that slavery—subordination to the superior race—is his natural and normal condition." In an 1890 editorial about Native Americans and the American Indian Wars, author L. Frank Baum wrote: "The Whites, by law of conquest, by justice of civilization, are masters of the American continent, and the best safety of the frontier settlements will be secured by the total annihilation of the few remaining Indians."{{cite web |url=http://www.northern.edu/hastingw/baumedts.htm |title=L. Frank Baum's Editorials on the Sioux Nation |access-date=December 9, 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071209193251/http://www.northern.edu/hastingw/baumedts.htm |archive-date=December 9, 2007 }} Full text of both, with commentary by professor A. Waller Hastings

The Naturalization Act of 1790 limited U.S. citizenship to whites only.{{cite book|last=Schultz|first=Jeffrey D.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WDV40aK1T-sC&q=African+Americans+discriminated+by+Naturalization+Act+of+1790&pg=PA284|title=Encyclopedia of Minorities in American Politics: African Americans and Asian Americans|year=2002|isbn=978-1-57356-148-8|page=284|publisher=Oryx Press|access-date=March 25, 2010|archive-date=March 7, 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240307150238/https://books.google.com/books?id=WDV40aK1T-sC&q=African+Americans+discriminated+by+Naturalization+Act+of+1790&pg=PA284|url-status=live}} In some parts of the United States, many people who were considered non-white were disenfranchised, barred from government office, and prevented from holding most government jobs well into the second half of the 20th century. Professor Leland T. Saito of the University of Southern California writes: "Throughout the history of the United States, race has been used by whites for legitimizing and creating difference and social, economic and political exclusion."Leland T. Saito (1998). "Race and Politics: Asian Americans, Latinos, and Whites in a Los Angeles Suburb". p. 154. University of Illinois Press

The denial of social and political freedom to minorities continued into the mid-20th century, resulting in the civil rights movement.{{Cite press release |url=https://www.archives.gov/kansas-city/press/2013/13-29.html |title=50th Anniversary of the 1963 March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom Panel Discussion at the Black Archives of Mid-America |access-date=October 3, 2015 |publisher=The U.S. National Archives and Records Administration |date=August 7, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151004044615/http://www.archives.gov/kansas-city/press/2013/13-29.html |archive-date=October 4, 2015 }} The movement was spurred by the lynching of Emmett Till, a 14-year-old boy. David Jackson writes it was the image of the "murdered child's ravaged body, that forced the world to reckon with the brutality of American racism."{{Cite web |title=How The Horrific Photograph Of Emmett Till Helped Energize The Civil Rights Movement |url=http://100photos.time.com/photos/emmett-till-david-jackson |access-date=2017-08-05 |website=100 Photographs {{!}} The Most Influential Images of All Time |archive-date=July 6, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170706123149/http://100photos.time.com/photos/emmett-till-david-jackson }}

Sociologist Stephen Klineberg has stated that U.S. immigration laws prior to 1965 clearly "declared that Northern Europeans are a superior subspecies of the white race".{{Efn|This quote is by Klineberg in the NPR story, not from the text of any US law.}} The Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965 opened entry to the U.S. to non-Germanic groups, and significantly altered the demographic mix in the U.S. as a result.{{cite news |title=1965 immigration law changed face of America |author=Jennifer Ludden |url=https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=5391395 |work=All Things Considered |publisher=NPR |access-date=April 6, 2018 |archive-date=October 21, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161021143552/http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=5391395 |url-status=live }} With 38 U.S. states having banned interracial marriage through anti-miscegenation laws, the last 16 states had such laws in place until 1967 when they were invalidated by the Supreme Court of the United States' decision in Loving v. Virginia.Warren, Earl. Majority opinion. Loving v. Virginia. Documents of American Constitutional and Legal History, edited by Urofsky and Finkelman, Oxford UP, 2002, p. 779. These mid-century gains had a major impact on white Americans' political views; segregation and white racial superiority, which had been publicly endorsed in the 1940s, became minority views within the white community by the mid-1970s, and continued to decline in 1990s' polls to a single-digit percentage.{{Cite book|title=Racial Attitudes in America: Trends and Interpretations|last1=Schuman|first1=Howard|author-link1=Howard Schuman|last2=Steeh|first2=Charlotte|last3=Bobo|first3=Lawrence|author-link3=Lawrence D. Bobo|last4=Krysan|first4=Maria|date=1997|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=978-0-674-74568-1|pages=103ff|quote=The questions deal with most of the major racial issues that became focal in the middle of the twentieth century: integration of public accommodations, school integration, residential integration, and job discrimination [and] racial intermarriage and willingness to vote for a black presidential candidate. ... The trends that occur for most of the principle items are quite similar and can be illustrated ...using attitudes toward school integration as an example. The figure shows that there has been a massive and continuous movement of the American public from overwhelming acceptance of the principle of segregated schooling in the early 1940s toward acceptance of the principle of integrated schooling. ... by 1985, more than nine out of ten chose the pro-integration response.}}{{Cite book| publisher = Pine Forge Press|isbn=978-1-4129-4107-5| last1 = Healey| first1 = Joseph F.| last2 = O'Brien| first2 = Eileen| title = Race, Ethnicity, and Gender: Selected Readings| date = May 8, 2007 | quote = In 1942 only 42 percent of a national sample of whites reported that they believed blacks to be equal to whites in innate intelligence; since the late 1950s, however, around 80 percent of white Americans have rejected the idea of inherent black inferiority.}} For sociologist Howard Winant, these shifts marked the end of "monolithic white supremacy" in the United States.{{Cite journal|last=Winant|first=Howard|author-link=Howard Winant|date=1997|title=Behind Blue Eyes: Whiteness and Contemporary US Racial Politics|journal=New Left Review|issue=225|page=73|quote=white racial attitudes shifted dramatically in the postwar period. ... So, monolithic white supremacy is over, yet in a more concealed way, white power and privilege live on.|via=Google Books: «Off White: Readings on Power, Privilege, and Resistance»|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MpLnnmp3IGgC&q=%22Behind+Blue+Eyes%3A+Whiteness+and+Contemporary+US+Racial+%22|isbn=978-0-415-94964-4|access-date=October 21, 2020|archive-date=March 7, 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240307160233/https://books.google.com/books?id=MpLnnmp3IGgC&q=%22Behind+Blue+Eyes%3A+Whiteness+and+Contemporary+US+Racial+%22#v=snippet&q=%22Behind%20Blue%20Eyes%3A%20Whiteness%20and%20Contemporary%20US%20Racial%20%22&f=false|url-status=live}}

After the mid-1960s, white supremacy remained an important ideology to the American far-right.{{Cite book| publisher = Guilford Publications|isbn=978-1-4625-3760-0| last1 = Berlet| first1 = Chip| author-link1 = Chip Berlet| last2 = Lyons| first2 = Matthew N.| title = Right-Wing Populism in America: Too Close for Comfort| date = March 8, 2018 | quote = While the New Right and Christian Right flourished in the 1970s and 1980s, the Far Right also rebounded... The Far Right—encompassing Ku Klux Klan, neonazi, and related organizations—attracted a much smaller following than the New Right, but its influence reverberated in its encouragement of widespread attacks against members of oppressed groups and in broad-based scapegoating campaigns}} According to Kathleen Belew, a historian of race and racism in the United States, white militancy shifted after the Vietnam War from supporting the existing racial order to a more radical position (self-described as "white power" or "white nationalism") committed to overthrowing the United States government and establishing a white homeland.{{Cite book|isbn=978-0-674-28607-8| last = Belew| first = Kathleen| author-link=Kathleen Belew |title = Bring the war home: The white power movement and paramilitary America| date = 2018 | quote = The white power movement that emerged from the Vietnam era shared some common attributes with earlier racist movements in the United States, but it was no mere echo. Unlike previous iterations of the Ku Klux Klan and white-supremacist vigilantism, the white power movement did not claim to serve the state. Instead, white power made the state its target, declaring war against the federal government in 1983.}}{{Cite magazine |url=https://www.thenation.com/article/declaration-of-war/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190407121624/https://www.thenation.com/article/declaration-of-war/ |archive-date=April 7, 2019 |title=Declaration of War: The violent rise of white supremacy after Vietnam (How Did Vietnam Transform White Supremacy?) |last=Blanchfield |first=Patrick |date=June 20, 2018 |magazine=The Nation |access-date=March 12, 2024 |issn=0027-8378}}{{cbignore}} Such anti-government militia organizations are one of three major strands of violent right-wing movements in the United States, with white-supremacist groups (such as the Ku Klux Klan, neo-Nazi organizations, and racist skinheads) and a religious fundamentalist movement (such as Christian Identity) being the other two.{{Cite conference|last=Perliger|first=Arie|date=2012|title=Challengers from the Sidelines: Understanding America's Violent Far-Right|location=West Point, NY|publisher=Combating Terrorism Center, US Military Academy}}{{Cite news|url=https://www.pbs.org/newshour/show/u-s-sees-300-violent-attacks-inspired-far-right-every-year|title=U.S. sees 300 violent attacks inspired by far right every year|date=August 13, 2017|work=PBS NewsHour|access-date=August 11, 2018|archive-date=August 11, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180811063804/https://www.pbs.org/newshour/show/u-s-sees-300-violent-attacks-inspired-far-right-every-year|url-status=live}}

The presidential campaign of Donald Trump led to a surge of interest in white supremacy and white nationalism in the United States, bringing increased media attention and new members to their movement; his campaign enjoyed their widespread support.{{Cite web |date=2016-04-11 |title=Why White-Nationalist Thugs Thrill to Trump |url=https://www.nationalreview.com/magazine/2016/04/11/donald-trump-white-supremacist-supporters/ |url-access=subscription |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180824100325/https://www.nationalreview.com/magazine/2016/04/11/donald-trump-white-supremacist-supporters/ |archive-date=2018-08-24 |access-date=2022-07-17 |website=National Review |language=en-US}}{{cbignore}}{{Cite web |last=Smith |first=Candace |title=The White Nationalists Who Support Donald Trump |url=https://abcnews.go.com/Politics/white-nationalists-support-donald-trump/story?id=37524610 |access-date=2022-07-17 |website=ABC News |language=en |archive-date=July 17, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220717215621/https://abcnews.go.com/Politics/white-nationalists-support-donald-trump/story?id=37524610 |url-status=live }}{{Cite web |date=2016-03-07 |title=How Trump Is Inspiring A New Generation Of White Nationalists |url=https://www.huffpost.com/entry/trump-white-nationalists_n_56dd99c2e4b0ffe6f8e9ee7c |access-date=2022-07-17 |website=HuffPost |language=en |archive-date=July 17, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220717215621/https://www.huffpost.com/entry/trump-white-nationalists_n_56dd99c2e4b0ffe6f8e9ee7c |url-status=live }}

Some academics argue that outcomes from the 2016 United States presidential election reflect ongoing challenges with white supremacy.{{cite journal |last1=Inwood |first1=Joshua |year=2019 |title=White supremacy, white counter-revolutionary politics, and the rise of Donald Trump |url=http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/2399654418789949 |journal=Environment and Planning C: Politics and Space |volume=37 |issue=4 |pages=579–596 |doi=10.1177/2399654418789949 |issn=2399-6544 |s2cid=158269272 |access-date=January 3, 2021 |archive-date=February 25, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210225200807/https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/2399654418789949 |url-status=live |url-access=subscription }}{{cite journal |last1=Bobo |first1=Lawrence D. |author-link1=Lawrence D. Bobo |date=n.d. |title=Racism in Trump's America: reflections on culture, sociology, and the 2016 US presidential election |journal=The British Journal of Sociology |volume=68 |issue=S1 |pages=S85–S104 |doi=10.1111/1468-4446.12324 |issn=1468-4446 |pmid=29114872|s2cid=9714176 |doi-access=free }} Psychologist Janet Helms suggested that the normalizing behaviors of social institutions of education, government, and healthcare are organized around the "birthright of...the power to control society's resources and determine the rules for [those resources]". Educators, literary theorists, and other political experts have raised similar questions, connecting the scapegoating of disenfranchised populations to white superiority.{{Cite web |date=December 1, 2016 |title=Cornel West on Donald Trump: This is What Neo-Fascism Looks Like |url=https://www.democracynow.org/2016/12/1/cornel_west_on_donald_trump_this |website=Democracy Now! |access-date=March 25, 2018 |archive-date=March 25, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180325233311/https://www.democracynow.org/2016/12/1/cornel_west_on_donald_trump_this |url-status=live }}{{Cite web |date=December 13, 2016 |title=Politics of Gender: Women, Men, and the 2016 Campaign |url=https://www.theatlantic.com/live/events/the-politics-of-gender-2016/2016/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210309021849/https://www.theatlantic.com/live/events/the-politics-of-gender-2016/2016/ |archive-date=March 9, 2021 |access-date=March 25, 2018 |website=The Atlantic}}

{{Further|Racial views of Winston Churchill}}

There has been debate whether Winston Churchill, who was voted "the greatest ever Briton" in 2002, was "a racist and white supremacist". In the context of rejecting the Arab wish to stop Jewish immigration to Palestine, he said:

I do not admit that the dog in the manger has the final right to the manger, though he may have lain there for a very long time. I do not admit that right. I do not admit for instance that a great wrong has been done to the Red Indians of America or the black people of Australia. I do not admit that a wrong has been done to those people by the fact that a stronger race, a higher-grade race or at any rate a more worldly-wise race ... has come in and taken their place."{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-4BbDwAAQBAJ&q=andrew+roberts+dog+in+the+manger&pg=PR106|title=Churchill: Walking With Destiny|last=Roberts|first=Andrew|date=2018|publisher=Allen Lane|isbn=978-0-241-20564-8|location=London|pages=414–15|author-link=Andrew Roberts (historian)|access-date=12 May 2021|archive-date=March 7, 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240307150158/https://books.google.com/books?id=-4BbDwAAQBAJ&q=andrew+roberts+dog+in+the+manger&pg=PR106|url-status=live}}

British historian Richard Toye, author of Churchill's Empire, concluded that "Churchill did think that white people were superior."{{cite news|first=Tom|last=Heyden|title=The 10 greatest controversies of Winston Churchill's career|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/magazine-29701767|work=BBC News|date=January 26, 2015|access-date=January 27, 2019|archive-date=January 22, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210122120902/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/magazine-29701767|url-status=live}}

{{Further|Apartheid|Baasskap}}

A number of Southern African nations experienced severe racial tension and conflict during global decolonization, particularly as white Africans of European ancestry fought to protect their preferential social and political status. Racial segregation in South Africa began in colonial times under the Dutch Empire. It continued when the British took over the Cape of Good Hope in 1795. Apartheid was introduced as an officially structured policy by the Afrikaner-dominated National Party after the general election of 1948. Apartheid's legislation divided inhabitants into four racial groups – "black", "white", "coloured", and "Indian", with coloured divided into several sub-classifications.Baldwin-Ragaven, Laurel; London, Lesley; du Gruchy, Jeanelle (1999). An ambulance of the wrong colour: health professionals, human rights, and ethics in South Africa. Juta and Company Limited. p. 18 In 1970, the Afrikaner-run government abolished non-white political representation, and starting that year black people were deprived of South African citizenship.John Pilger (2011). "Freedom Next Time". p. 266. Random House South Africa abolished apartheid in 1991.{{cite web |title = abolition of the White Australia Policy |url = http://www.immi.gov.au/media/fact-sheets/08abolition.htm |publisher = Australian Government |date = November 2010 |access-date = October 13, 2011 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20060901105340/http://www.immi.gov.au/media/fact-sheets/08abolition.htm |archive-date = September 1, 2006 }}{{cite encyclopedia | url = http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/555568/South-Africa/259494/The-apartheid-years | title = Encyclopædia Britannica, South Africa the Apartheid Years | encyclopedia = Encyclopædia Britannica | access-date = October 13, 2011 | archive-date = October 28, 2011 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20111028155947/http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/555568/South-Africa/259494/The-apartheid-years | url-status = live }}

In Rhodesia a predominantly white government issued its own unilateral declaration of independence from the United Kingdom in 1965 during an ultimately unsuccessful attempt to avoid majority rule.{{cite book|last=Gann|first=L.H.|title=Politics and Government in African States 1960–1985|pages=162–202}} Following the Rhodesian Bush War which was fought by African nationalists, Rhodesian prime minister Ian Smith acceded to biracial political representation in 1978 and the state achieved recognition from the United Kingdom as Zimbabwe in 1980.{{cite book|last=Nelson|first=Harold|title=Zimbabwe: A Country Study|pages=1–317}}

{{Further|Aryanism}}

Nazism promoted the idea of a superior Germanic people or Aryan race in Germany during the early 20th century. Notions of white supremacy and Aryan racial superiority were combined in the 19th century, with white supremacists maintaining the belief that white people were members of an Aryan "master race" that was superior to other races, particularly the Jews, who were described as the "Semitic race", Slavs, and Gypsies, who they associated with "cultural sterility". Arthur de Gobineau, a French racial theorist and aristocrat, blamed the fall of the ancien régime in France on racial degeneracy caused by racial intermixing, which he argued had destroyed the "purity" of the Nordic or Germanic race. Gobineau's theories, which attracted a strong following in Germany, emphasized the existence of an irreconcilable polarity between Aryan or Germanic peoples and Jewish culture.Blamires, Cyprian; Jackson, Paul. "[https://www.proquest.com/docview/217900153 World Fascism: A Historical Encyclopedia]": Volume 1. Santa Barbara, California, USA: ABC-CLIO, Inc, 2006. p. 62.

As the Nazi Party's chief racial theorist, Alfred Rosenberg oversaw the construction of a human racial "ladder" that justified Hitler's racial and ethnic policies. Rosenberg promoted the Nordic theory, which regarded Nordics as the "master race", superior to all others, including other Aryans (Indo-Europeans).Though Rosenberg does not use the word "master race". He uses the word "Herrenvolk" (i. e., ruling people) twice in his book The Myth, first referring to the Amorites (saying that Sayce described them as fair skinned and blue eyed) and secondly quoting Victor Wallace Germains' description of the English in "The Truth about Kitchener". ("The Myth of the Twentieth Century") – Pages 26, 660 – 1930 Rosenberg got the racial term Untermensch from the title of Klansman Lothrop Stoddard's 1922 book The Revolt Against Civilization: The Menace of the Under-man.{{cite book| author = Stoddard, Lothrop| author-link = Lothrop Stoddard| year = 1922| title = The Revolt Against Civilization: The Menace of the Under Man| publisher = Charles Scribner's Sons| location = New York| url = https://archive.org/details/revoltagainstciv00stoduoft}} It was later adopted by the Nazis from that book's German version Der Kulturumsturz: Die Drohung des Untermenschen (1925).{{cite journal| author = Losurdo, Domenico| author-link = Domenico Losurdo| others = Translated by Marella & Jon Morris| year = 2004| title = Toward a Critique of the Category of Totalitarianism| journal = Historical Materialism| volume = 12| issue = 2| pages = 25–55, here p. 50| issn = 1465-4466| doi = 10.1163/1569206041551663| url = http://www.pssp.org/bbs/data/document/1/Losurdo___Critique_of_Totalitarianism_%282004%29.pdf| format = PDF, 0.2 MB| access-date = June 21, 2017| archive-date = March 26, 2023| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20230326025911/http://www.pssp.org/bbs/data/document/1/Losurdo___Critique_of_Totalitarianism_(2004).pdf| url-status = live}} Rosenberg was the leading Nazi who attributed the concept of the East-European "under man" to Stoddard.{{cite book| author = Rosenberg, Alfred| author-link = Alfred Rosenberg| year = 1930| title = Der Mythus des 20. Jahrhunderts: Eine Wertung der seelischgeistigen Gestaltungskämpfe unserer Zeit| trans-title = The Myth of the Twentieth Century| publisher = Hoheneichen-Verlag| location = Munich| page = 214| url = https://www.scribd.com/doc/2628285/Der-Mythus-des-20-Jahrhunderts-Alfred-Rosenberg| language = de| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20121104014921/http://www.scribd.com/doc/2628285/Der-Mythus-des-20-Jahrhunderts-Alfred-Rosenberg| archive-date = November 4, 2012}} An advocate of the U.S. immigration laws that favored Northern Europeans, Stoddard wrote primarily on the alleged dangers posed by "colored" peoples to white civilization, and wrote The Rising Tide of Color Against White World-Supremacy in 1920. In establishing a restrictive entry system for Germany in 1925, Hitler wrote of his admiration for America's immigration laws: "The American Union categorically refuses the immigration of physically unhealthy elements, and simply excludes the immigration of certain races."[http://www.timesofisrael.com/american-laws-against-coloreds-influenced-nazi-racial-planners/ "American laws against 'coloreds' influenced Nazi racial planners"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170827054238/http://www.timesofisrael.com/american-laws-against-coloreds-influenced-nazi-racial-planners/ |date=August 27, 2017 }}. Times of Israel. Retrieved August 26, 2017

German praise for America's institutional racism, previously found in Hitler's Mein Kampf, was continuous throughout the early 1930s. Nazi lawyers were advocates of the use of American models. Race-based U.S. citizenship and anti-miscegenation laws directly inspired the Nazis' two principal Nuremberg racial laws—the Citizenship Law and the Blood Law.{{cite book|last1=Whitman|first1=James Q.|author-link1=James Whitman|title=Hitler's American Model: The United States and the Making of Nazi Race Law|date=2017|publisher=Princeton University Press|pages=37–43}} To preserve the Aryan or Nordic race, the Nazis introduced the Nuremberg Laws in 1935, which forbade sexual relations and marriages between Germans and Jews, and later between Germans and Romani and Slavs. The Nazis used the Mendelian inheritance theory to argue that social traits were innate, claiming that there was a racial nature associated with certain general traits, such as inventiveness or criminal behavior.Henry Friedlander. The Origins of Nazi Genocide: From Euthanasia to the Final Solution. Chapel Hill, North Carolina, USA: University of North Carolina Press, 1995. p. 5.

According to the 2012 annual report of Germany's interior intelligence service, the Federal Office for the Protection of the Constitution, at the time there were 26,000 right-wing extremists living in Germany, including 6,000 neo-Nazis.{{cite web|url=http://www.verfassungsschutz.de/de/oeffentlichkeitsarbeit/publikationen/verfassungsschutzberichte/vsbericht-2012|title=Bundesamt für Verfassungsschutz – Verfassungsschutzbericht 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150321183652/http://www.verfassungsschutz.de/de/oeffentlichkeitsarbeit/publikationen/verfassungsschutzberichte/vsbericht-2012|archive-date=March 21, 2015}}

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Fifty-one people died from two consecutive terrorist attacks at the Al Noor Mosque and the Linwood Islamic Centre by an Australian white supremacist carried out on March 15, 2019. The terrorist attacks have been described by Prime Minister Jacinda Ardern as "One of New Zealand's darkest days". On August 27, 2020, the shooter was sentenced to life without parole.{{Cite news|date=August 27, 2020|title=Christchurch killer to stay in jail until he dies|language=en-GB|publisher=BBC News|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-53919624|access-date=August 27, 2020|archive-date=August 9, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210809002613/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-53919624|url-status=live}}{{Cite web|title=Brenton Tarrant: White supremacist sentenced to life without parole for killing 51 Muslims in New Zealand mosque attacks|url=https://news.sky.com/story/brenton-tarrant-white-supremacist-sentenced-to-life-without-parole-for-killing-51-muslims-in-new-zealand-mosque-attacks-12057417|access-date=August 27, 2020|website=Sky News|language=en|archive-date=August 27, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200827211151/https://news.sky.com/story/brenton-tarrant-white-supremacist-sentenced-to-life-without-parole-for-killing-51-muslims-in-new-zealand-mosque-attacks-12057417|url-status=live}}{{Cite news|last=Staff|first=Our Foreign|date=August 27, 2020|title=New Zealand mosque shooting: 'Wicked and inhuman' Brenton Tarrant sentenced to life without parole|language=en-GB|newspaper=The Telegraph|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2020/08/27/new-zealand-mosque-shooting-wicked-inhuman-brenton-tarrant-sentenced/ |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220111/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2020/08/27/new-zealand-mosque-shooting-wicked-inhuman-brenton-tarrant-sentenced/ |archive-date=January 11, 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live|access-date=August 27, 2020|issn=0307-1235}}{{cbignore}}

In 2016, there was a rise in debate over the appropriateness of the naming of Massey University in Palmerston North after William Massey, whom many historians and critics have described as a white supremacist.{{Cite web |date=2016-09-29 |title=Massey Uni named after racist PM, lecturer says |url=https://www.rnz.co.nz/news/national/314507/massey-uni-named-after-racist-pm,-lecturer-says |access-date=2023-08-25 |website=RNZ |language=en-nz |archive-date=August 25, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230825071726/https://www.rnz.co.nz/news/national/314507/massey-uni-named-after-racist-pm,-lecturer-says |url-status=live }} Lecturer Steve Elers was a leading proponent of the idea that Massey was an avowed white supremacist, given Massey "made several anti-Chinese racist statements in the public domain" and intensified the New Zealand head tax.{{Cite web |last=Tuckey |first=Karoline |date=2016-09-29 |title=Massey racism provokes call for university name change |url=https://www.stuff.co.nz/national/84753337/massey-racism-provokes-call-for-university-name-change |access-date=2023-08-25 |website=Stuff |language=en |archive-date=August 25, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230825071717/https://www.stuff.co.nz/national/84753337/massey-racism-provokes-call-for-university-name-change |url-status=live }}{{Cite journal |last=Elers |first=Steve |date=2018-07-01 |title=A 'white New Zealand': Anti-Chinese Racist Political Discourse from 1880 to 1920 |url=https://go.gale.com/ps/i.do?p=AONE&sw=w&issn=1556889X&v=2.1&it=r&id=GALE%7CA549658147&sid=googleScholar&linkaccess=abs |journal=China Media Research |language=English |volume=14 |issue=3 |pages=88–99 |access-date=August 25, 2023 |archive-date=March 7, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240307150150/https://go.gale.com/ps/i.do?p=AONE&sw=w&issn=1556889X&v=2.1&it=r&id=GALE%7CA549658147&sid=googleScholar&linkaccess=abs&userGroupName=anon%7E4cd52eab&aty=open-web-entry |url-status=live }} In 1921, Massey wrote in the Evening Post: "New Zealanders are probably the purest Anglo-Saxon population in the British Empire. Nature intended New Zealand to be a white man's country, and it must be kept as such. The strain of Polynesian will be no detriment". This is one of many quotes attributed to him regarded as being openly racist.{{Cite web |title=William Massey was a Racist |url=https://www.massivemagazine.org.nz/articles/william-massey-was-a-racist |access-date=2023-08-25 |website=Massive Magazine |language=en-US |archive-date=August 25, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230825071717/https://www.massivemagazine.org.nz/articles/william-massey-was-a-racist |url-status=live }}

Supporters of Nordicism consider the "Nordic peoples" to be a superior race.{{cite web|title=Nordicism|url=http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/nordicism|website=Merriam Webster|access-date=August 9, 2015|archive-date=September 10, 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150910012037/http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/nordicism|url-status=live}} By the early 19th century, white supremacy was attached to emerging theories of racial hierarchy. The German philosopher Arthur Schopenhauer attributed cultural primacy to the white race:

{{Blockquote|The highest civilization and culture, apart from the ancient Hindus and Egyptians, are found exclusively among the white races; and even with many dark peoples, the ruling caste or race is fairer in colour than the rest and has, therefore, evidently immigrated, for example, the Brahmins, the Incas, and the rulers of the South Sea Islands. All this is due to the fact that necessity is the mother of invention because those tribes that emigrated early to the north, and there gradually became white, had to develop all their intellectual powers and invent and perfect all the arts in their struggle with need, want and misery, which in their many forms were brought about by the climate.{{cite book | last = Schopenhauer | first = Arthur | author-link = Arthur Schopenhauer | title = Parerga and Paralipomena | year = 1851 | pages = Vol. 2, Section 92| title-link = Parerga and Paralipomena }}}}

File:Good Citizen Pillar of Fire Church July 1926.jpg 1926, published by Pillar of Fire Church]]

The eugenicist Madison Grant argued in his 1916 book, The Passing of the Great Race, that the Nordic race had been responsible for most of humanity's great achievements, and that admixture was "race suicide".{{cite book | last = Grant | first = Madison | title = The Passing of the Great Race | publisher = C. Scribner's sons | year = 1921 | edition = 4 | page = xxxi | url = https://archive.org/stream/passingofgreatra00granuoft/passingofgreatra00granuoft_djvu.txt}} In this book, Europeans who are not of Germanic origin but have Nordic characteristics such as blonde/red hair and blue/green/gray eyes, were considered to be a Nordic admixture and suitable for Aryanization.Grant, Madison (1916). The Passing of the Great Race. Charles Scribner's Sons, New York.

File:Klan-in-gainesville.jpg at a rally in 1923]]

In the United States, the groups most associated with the white-supremacist movement are the Ku Klux Klan (KKK), Aryan Nations, and the White American Resistance movement, all of which are also considered to be antisemitic. The Proud Boys, despite claiming non-association with white supremacy, have been described in academic contexts as being such. Many white-supremacist groups are based on the concept of preserving genetic purity, and do not focus solely on discrimination based on skin color. The KKK's reasons for supporting racial segregation are not primarily based on religious ideals, but some Klan groups are openly Protestant.{{citation needed|date=August 2022}} The 1915 silent drama film The Birth of a Nation followed the rising racial, economic, political, and geographic tensions leading up to the Emancipation Proclamation and the Southern Reconstruction era that was the genesis of the Ku Klux Klan.{{Cite web |author=Armstrong. Eric M. |date=February 6, 2010 |title=Revered and Reviled: D.W. Griffith's 'The Birth of a Nation' |url=http://themovingarts.com/revered-and-reviled-d-w-griffiths-the-birth-of-a-nation/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100529224316/http://themovingarts.com/revered-and-reviled-d-w-griffiths-the-birth-of-a-nation/ |archive-date=May 29, 2010 |access-date=December 9, 2018 |url-status=usurped |website=The Moving Arts Film Journal}}

Nazi Germany promulgated white supremacy based on the belief that the Aryan race, or the Germans, were the master race. It was combined with a eugenics programme that aimed for racial hygiene through compulsory sterilization of sick individuals and extermination of Untermenschen ("subhumans"): Slavs, Jews and Romani, which eventually culminated in the Holocaust.{{interlanguage link|Janusz Gumkowski|lt=Gumkowski, Janusz|de}}; {{interlanguage link|lt=Leszczynski, Kazimierz|Kazimierz Leszczyński|de}}; Robert, Edward (translator) (1961). Hitler's Plans for Eastern Europe (PAPERBACK). [https://archive.org/details/PolandUnderNaziOccupation/page/n7 Poland Under Nazi Occupation (First ed.)] (Polonia Pub. House). ASIN B0006BXJZ6. Retrieved March 12, 2014. at Wayback machine.Peter Longerich (April 15, 2010). Holocaust: The Nazi Persecution and Murder of the Jews. Oxford University Press. p. 30. {{ISBN|978-0-19-280436-5}}.{{cite web | url=http://digitalassets.ushmm.org/photoarchives/detail.aspx?id=10049&search=EUTHANASIA+%28PATIENTS%2FVICTIMS%29&index=25 | title=Close-up of Richard Jenne, the last child killed by the head nurse at the Kaufbeuren-Irsee euthanasia facility. | publisher=United States Holocaust Memorial Museum | access-date=July 29, 2011 | archive-date=March 21, 2012 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120321002326/http://digitalassets.ushmm.org/photoarchives/detail.aspx?id=10049&search=EUTHANASIA+(PATIENTS%2FVICTIMS)&index=25 | url-status=live }}Ian Kershaw, Hitler: A Profile in Power, Chapter VI, first section (London, 1991, rev. 2001)Snyder, S. & D. Mitchell. Cultural Locations of Disability. University of Michigan Press. 2006.

Christian Identity is another movement closely tied to white supremacy. Some white supremacists identify themselves as Odinists, although many Odinists reject white supremacy. Some white-supremacist groups, such as the South African Boeremag, conflate elements of Christianity and Odinism. Creativity (formerly known as "The World Church of the Creator") is atheistic and it denounces Christianity and other theistic religions.{{cite book|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=HB1wyFPRGm4C&q=atheistic&pg=PA23|title = The new white nationalism in America: its challenge to integration|publisher = Cambridge University Press|quote = For instance, Ben Klassen, founder of the atheistic Church of the Creator and author of The White Man's Bible, discusses Christianity extensively in his writings and denounces it as a religion that has brought untold horror into the world and has divided the white race.|access-date = March 27, 2011|isbn = 978-0-521-80886-6|date = June 10, 2002|archive-date = March 7, 2024|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20240307150141/https://books.google.com/books?id=HB1wyFPRGm4C&q=atheistic&pg=PA23#v=snippet&q=atheistic&f=false|url-status = live}}{{cite book|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=rBgn3xB75ZcC&q=competing+atheistic+white+racist+movement&pg=PA493|title = The World's Religions: Continuities and Transformations|publisher = Taylor & Francis|quote = A competing atheistic or panthestic white racist movement also appeared, which included the Church of the Creator/ Creativity (Gardell 2003: 129–34).|access-date = March 27, 2011|isbn = 978-1-135-21100-4|date = May 7, 2009|archive-date = March 7, 2024|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20240307150203/https://books.google.com/books?id=rBgn3xB75ZcC&q=competing+atheistic+white+racist+movement&pg=PA493#v=snippet&q=competing%20atheistic%20white%20racist%20movement&f=false|url-status = live}} Aside from this, its ideology is similar to that of many Christian Identity groups because it believes in the antisemitic conspiracy theory that there is a "Jewish conspiracy" in control of governments, the banking industry and the media. Matthew F. Hale, founder of the World Church of the Creator, has published articles stating that all races other than white are "mud races", which is what the group's religion teaches.{{citation needed|date=August 2022}}

The white-supremacist ideology has become associated with a racist faction of the skinhead subculture, despite the fact that when the skinhead culture first developed in the United Kingdom in the late 1960s, it was heavily influenced by black fashions and music, especially Jamaican reggae and ska, and African American soul music.{{cite web |url=http://ska.about.com/musicperform/ska/library/1999/aa081699a.htm |title=Smiling Smash: An Interview with Cathal Smyth, a.k.a. Chas Smash, of Madness |access-date=February 19, 2001 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20010219175613/http://ska.about.com/musicperform/ska/library/1999/aa081699a.htm |archive-date=February 19, 2001 }}.[http://www.reggaereggaereggae.com/Special%20Articles.htm Special Articles] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081217000127/http://www.reggaereggaereggae.com/Special%20Articles.htm|date=December 17, 2008}}.{{cite book |last=Old Skool Jim |title=Trojan Skinhead Reggae Box Set liner notes |publisher=Trojan Records |location=London |id=TJETD169}}

White-supremacist recruitment activities are primarily conducted at a grassroots level as well as on the Internet. Widespread access to the Internet has led to a dramatic increase in white-supremacist websites.{{Cite journal|last1=Adams |first1=Josh |first2=Vincent J. |last2=Roscigno |title=White Supremacists, Oppositional Culture and the World Wide Web |journal=Social Forces |volume=84 |issue=2 |pages=759–778 |date=November 20, 2009 |doi=10.1353/sof.2006.0001 |jstor=3598477|s2cid=144768434 }} The Internet provides a venue for open expression of white-supremacist ideas at little social cost because people who post the information are able to remain anonymous.

{{Main|White nationalism}}

{{anchor|White separatism}}

White separatism is a political and social movement that seeks the separation of white people from people of other races and ethnicities. This may include the establishment of a white ethnostate by removing non-whites from existing communities or by forming new communities elsewhere.{{Cite journal |url=http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qa3719/is_200607/ai_n16855771/pg_9/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071203033702/http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qa3719/is_200607/ai_n16855771/pg_9 |archive-date=December 3, 2007 |title=The Strategy of White Separatism |journal=Journal of Political and Military Sociology |date=Summer 2006 |last1=Dobratz |first1=Betty A. |last2=Shanks-Meile |first2=Stephanie L. |name-list-style=amp|volume=34 |number=1 |pages=49–80 }}

Most modern researchers do not view white separatism as distinct from white-supremacist beliefs. The Anti-Defamation League defines white separatism as "a form of white supremacy";{{cite web |title=White Separatism |url=https://www.adl.org/resources/glossary-terms/white-separatism |publisher=ADL |access-date=April 4, 2019 |archive-date=September 20, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220920171106/https://www.adl.org/resources/glossary-terms/white-separatism |url-status=live }} the Southern Poverty Law Center defines both white nationalism and white separatism as "ideologies based on white supremacy."{{cite web |title=SPLC reacts to Facebook policy on white nationalism |date=March 27, 2019 |url=https://www.splcenter.org/news/2019/03/27/splc-reacts-facebook-policy-white-nationalism |publisher=SPLC |access-date=April 4, 2019 |archive-date=September 20, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220920171357/https://www.splcenter.org/news/2019/03/27/splc-reacts-facebook-policy-white-nationalism |url-status=live }} Facebook has banned content that is openly white nationalist or white separatist because "white nationalism and white separatism cannot be meaningfully separated from white supremacy and organized hate groups".{{cite web |title=Standing Against Hate |date=March 27, 2019 |url=https://newsroom.fb.com/news/2019/03/standing-against-hate/ |publisher=Facebook |access-date=April 4, 2019 |archive-date=November 11, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191111184252/https://newsroom.fb.com/news/2019/03/standing-against-hate/ |url-status=live }}{{cite news |title=Facebook to ban white nationalism and separatism |work=BBC News |date=March 28, 2019 |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-us-canada-47728471 |access-date=April 4, 2019 |archive-date=September 20, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220920170809/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-us-canada-47728471 |url-status=live }}

Use of the term to self-identify has been criticized as a dishonest rhetorical ploy. The Anti-Defamation League argues that white supremacists use the phrase because they believe it has fewer negative connotations than the term white supremacist.

Dobratz and Shanks-Meile reported that adherents usually reject marriage "outside the white race". They argued for the existence of "a distinction between the white supremacist's desire to dominate (as in apartheid, slavery, or segregation) and complete separation by race".Dobratz, Betty A. & Shanks-Meile, Stephanie L. (2000) The White Separatist Movement in the United States: "White Power, White Pride!. Baltimore: JHU Press. pp.vii, 10 They argued that this is a matter of pragmatism, because, while many white supremacists are also white separatists, contemporary white separatists reject the view that returning to a system of segregation is possible or desirable in the United States.{{Cite book | last1=Dobratz |first1=Betty A. |last2=Shanks-Meile |first2=Stephanie L. |name-list-style=amp|year=1997 |title=The White Separatist Movement in the United States: White Power, White Pride! |location=New York |publisher=Twayne Publishers |isbn=978-0-8057-3865-0 |oclc=37341476 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=r59bGyH4lOAC|pages=ix,12}}

{{Columns-list|colwidth=15em|

• Andrew Anglin
• Virginia Abernethy
• Fraser Anning
• Gordon Lee Baum
• Louis Beam
• Don Black
• Richard Girnt Butler
• Thomas W. Chittum
• Harold Covington
• David Duke
• Mike Enoch
• Samuel T. Francis
• Nick Griffin
• Michael H. Hart
• Arthur Kemp
• Ben Klassen
• David Lane
• William Massey
• Robert Jay Mathews
• Tom Metzger
• Merlin Miller
• Revilo P. Oliver
• William Luther Pierce
• Richard B. Spencer
• Kevin Alfred Strom
• Jared Taylor
• Eugène Terre'Blanche
• Andries Treurnicht
• John Tyndall
• Hendrik Frensch Verwoerd
• Varg Vikernes

}}

• Aryan Brotherhood
• Christian Identity
• Council of Conservative Citizens
• Ethnopluralism
• Eurocentrism
• Ku Klux Klan
• National-anarchism
• Neo-Confederate
• New Orleans Protocol
• Northwest Territorial Imperative
• Volkstaat
• White pride

The term white supremacy is used in some academic studies of racial power to denote a system of structural or societal racism which privileges white people over others, regardless of the presence or the absence of racial hatred. According to this definition, white racial advantages occur at both a collective and an individual level (ceteris paribus, {{Nowrap|i. e.}}, when individuals are compared that do not differ relevantly except in ethnicity). Legal scholar Frances Lee Ansley explains this definition as follows:

{{Blockquote|By "white supremacy" I do not mean to allude only to the self-conscious racism of white supremacist hate groups. I refer instead to a political, economic and cultural system in which whites overwhelmingly control power and material resources, conscious and unconscious ideas of white superiority and entitlement are widespread, and relations of white dominance and non-white subordination are daily reenacted across a broad array of institutions and social settings.}}

This and similar definitions have been adopted or proposed by Charles W. Mills,{{Cite journal |last=Mills |first=C.W. |author-link=Charles W. Mills |year=2003 |title=White supremacy as sociopolitical system: A philosophical perspective |journal=White Out: The Continuing Significance of Racism |pages=35–48}} bell hooks,{{Cite book |last=Hooks |first=Bell |author-link=bell hooks |title=Feminist theory: From margin to center |date=2000 |publisher=Pluto Press |isbn=978-0-7453-1663-5}} David Gillborn,{{Cite journal |last=Gillborn |first=David |author-link=David Gillborn |date=September 1, 2006 |title=Rethinking White Supremacy Who Counts in 'WhiteWorld' |url=http://www.ssoar.info/ssoar/handle/document/23036 |journal=Ethnicities |volume=6 |issue=3 |pages=318–40 |doi=10.1177/1468796806068323 |issn=1468-7968 |s2cid=8984059 |access-date=March 27, 2020 |archive-date=September 22, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220922010421/https://www.ssoar.info/ssoar/handle/document/23036 |url-status=live |hdl=2262/52591 |hdl-access=free }} Jessie Daniels,{{Cite book |last=Daniels |first=Jessie |title=White Lies: race, class, gender and sexuality in white supremacist discourse |date=1997 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-415-91289-1}} and Neely Fuller Jr,{{Cite book |last=Fuller |first=Neely |title=The united-independent compensatory code/system/concept: A textbook/workbook for thought, speech, and/or action, for victims of racism (white supremacy) |publisher=SAGE |year=1984 |page=334 |asin=B0007BLCWC}} and they are widely used in critical race theory and intersectional feminism. Some anti-racist educators, such as Betita Martinez and the Challenging White Supremacy workshop, also use the term in this way. The term expresses historic continuities between a pre–civil rights movement era of open white supremacy and the current racial power structure of the United States. It also expresses the visceral impact of structural racism through "provocative and brutal" language that characterizes racism as "nefarious, global, systemic, and constant".{{Cite book |last=Davidson |first=Tim |title=Critical perspectives on bell hooks |date=February 23, 2009 |publisher=Taylor & Francis US |isbn=978-0-415-98980-0 |editor1=Jeanette Davidson |page=68 |chapter=bell hooks, white supremacy, and the academy |editor2=George Yancy}} Academic users of the term sometimes prefer it to racism because it allows for a distinction to be drawn between racist feelings and white racial advantage or privilege."Why is it so difficult for many white folks to understand that racism is oppressive not because white folks have prejudicial feelings about blacks (they could have such feelings and leave us alone) but because it is a system that promotes domination and subjugation?" {{Cite book |last=hooks |first=bell |title=Black Looks: Race and Representation |date=February 4, 2009 |publisher=Turnaround Publisher Services Limited |isbn=978-1-873262-02-3 |page=12}}Grillo and Wildman cite hooks to argue for the term racism/white supremacy: "hooks writes that liberal whites do not see themselves as either prejudiced or interested in domination through coercion, and they do not acknowledge the ways in which they contribute to and benefit from the system of white privilege." {{Cite book |last1=Grillo |first1=Trina |title=Critical white studies: Looking behind the mirror |author2=Stephanie M. Wildman |date=June 29, 1997 |publisher=Temple University Press |isbn=978-1-56639-532-8 |editor1=Richard Delgado |page=620 |chapter=The implications of making comparisons between racism and sexism (or other isms) |editor2=Jean Stefancic}}{{cite web |last1=Pollock |first1=Nicolas |last2=Myszkowski |first2=Sophia |title=Hate Groups Are Growing Under Trump |url=https://www.theatlantic.com/video/index/536793/hate-groups-are-growing-under-trump/ |access-date=April 28, 2018 |website=The Atlantic |archive-date=September 21, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220921225433/https://www.theatlantic.com/video/index/536793/hate-groups-are-growing-under-trump/ |url-status=live }} John McWhorter, a specialist in language and race relations, explains the gradual replacement of "racism" by "white supremacy" by the fact that "potent terms need refreshment, especially when heavily used", drawing a parallel with the replacement of "chauvinist" by "sexist".{{Cite web |last=McWhorter |first=John |author-link=John McWhorter |date=June 22, 2020 |title=The Dictionary Definition of 'Racism' Has to Change |url=https://www.theatlantic.com/ideas/archive/2020/06/dictionary-definition-racism-has-change/613324/ |access-date=July 22, 2020 |website=The Atlantic |language=en-US |archive-date=September 20, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220920172623/https://www.theatlantic.com/ideas/archive/2020/06/dictionary-definition-racism-has-change/613324/ |url-status=live }}

Other intellectuals have criticized the term's recent rise in popularity among leftist activists as counterproductive. John McWhorter has described the use of "white supremacy" as straying from its commonly accepted meaning to encompass less extreme issues, thereby cheapening the term and potentially derailing productive discussion.{{cite news |title=Left Language, Right Language |newspaper=Wnyc |url=http://www.wnyc.org/story/left-language-right-language/ |access-date=December 3, 2016 |archive-date=September 21, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220921224339/https://www.wnyc.org/story/left-language-right-language/ |url-status=live }}{{cite magazine |last1=McWhorter |first1=John |title=The Difference Between Racial Bias and White Supremacy |url=https://time.com/4584161/white-supremacy/ |magazine=TIME |access-date=December 3, 2016 |archive-date=December 2, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161202104713/http://time.com/4584161/white-supremacy/? |url-status=live }} Political columnist Kevin Drum attributes the term's growing popularity to frequent use by Ta-Nehisi Coates, describing it as a "terrible fad" that fails to convey nuance. He claims that the term should be reserved for those who are trying to promote the idea that whites are inherently superior to blacks and not used to characterize less blatantly racist beliefs or actions.{{cite web |title=Let's Be Careful With the "White Supremacy" Label |url=https://www.motherjones.com/kevin-drum/2016/11/lets-please-kill-white-supremacy-fad |access-date=December 4, 2016 |website=Mother Jones |archive-date=September 22, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220922101050/https://www.motherjones.com/kevin-drum/2016/11/lets-please-kill-white-supremacy-fad/ |url-status=live }}{{Cite news |last=Friedersdorf |first=Conor |author-link=Conor Friedersdorf |title='The Scourge of the Left': Too Much Stigma, Not Enough Persuasion |language=en-US |newspaper=The Atlantic |url=https://www.theatlantic.com/politics/archive/2016/11/the-scourge-of-the-left-too-much-stigma-not-enough-persuasion/508961/ |access-date=December 4, 2016 |archive-date=September 20, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220920171526/https://www.theatlantic.com/politics/archive/2016/11/the-scourge-of-the-left-too-much-stigma-not-enough-persuasion/508961/ |url-status=live }} The academic use of the term to refer to systemic racism has been criticized by Conor Friedersdorf for the confusion that it creates for the general public, inasmuch as it differs from the more common dictionary definition; he argues that it is likely to alienate those that it hopes to convince.

{{div col|colwidth=30em}}

• {{annotated link|Afrophobia}}
• {{annotated link|Antisemitism}}
• {{annotated link|Basking in reflected glory}}
• {{annotated link|Black supremacy}}
• {{annotated link|Boreal (politics and culture)}}
• {{annotated link|Christian Identity}}
• {{annotated link|Creativity (religion)}}
• Eurocentrism
• {{annotated link|Frances Cress Welsing}}
• {{annotated link|Heroes of the Fiery Cross}}
• {{annotated link|Kinism}}
• {{annotated link|Me and White Supremacy}}
• {{annotated link|Race and intelligence}}
• {{annotated link|Racism against Black Americans}}
• "{{annotated link|The White Man's Burden}}"
• {{annotated link|Western Supremacy (book)}}
• {{annotated link|List of white nationalist organizations|White nationalist organizations}}
• {{annotated link|White power skinheads}}
• {{annotated link|White power symbol (disambiguation)}}
• {{annotated link|White pride}}
• {{annotated link|White nationalism}}
• {{anl|Racism on the Internet}}
• {{annotated link|Anti-Black racism}}
• {{annotated link|Racism against African Americans}}
• {{annotated link|Jewish supremacy}}

{{div col end}}

{{notelist}}

{{Reflist}}

• Almaguer, Tomás. (2008) Racial Fault Lines: The Historical Origins of White Supremacy in California. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press. 1994.
• Brooks, Michael E. and Fitrakis, Robert (2021). A History of Hate in Ohio: Then and Now. The Ohio State University Press. {{ISBN|978-0-8142-5800-2}}
• {{cite news

|title=The invention of whiteness: the long history of a dangerous idea

|first=Robert P.

|last=Baird

|date=April 20, 2021

|newspaper=The Guardian

|url=https://www.theguardian.com/news/2021/apr/20/the-invention-of-whiteness-long-history-dangerous-idea}}

• Bessis, Sophie (2003) Western Supremacy: The Triumph of an Idea. Zed Books. {{isbn|9781842772195}} {{isbn|1842772198}}
• Dobratz, Betty A. and Shanks-Meile, Stephanie (2000) "White Power, White Pride!": The White Separatist Movement in the United States. Johns Hopkins University Press. {{ISBN|978-0-8018-6537-4}}
• Horne, Gerald. (2017) The Apocalypse of Settler Colonialism: The Roots of Slavery White Supremacy and Capitalism in Seventeenth-Century North America and the Caribbean. New York: Monthly Review Press; {{ISBN|978-1-58367-663-9}}.
• Horne, Gerald. (2020). The Dawning of the Apocalypse: The Roots of Slavery White Supremacy Settler Colonialism and Capitalism in the Long Sixteenth Century. New York: Monthly Review Press. {{ISBN|978-1-58367-872-5}}.
• MacCann, Donnarae (2000) [https://books.google.com/books?id=xj_T3QCgNgsC&q=%22White+supremacy%22+juvenile White Supremacy in Children's Literature: Characterizations of African Americans, 1830–1900]. New York: Routledge. {{isbn|9780415928908}}
• Van der Pijl, Kees, The Discipline of Western Supremacy: Modes of Foreign Relations and Political Economy, Volume III, Pluto Press, 2014, {{ISBN|978-0-7453-2318-3}}

{{Wikiquote}}

• [https://web.archive.org/web/20180221095938/https://www.docsonline.tv/documentary/heart-of-whiteness Heart of Whiteness]—A documentary film about what it means to be white in South Africa
• [https://web.archive.org/web/20161221114743/https://www.ushmm.org/confront-antisemitism/antisemitism-podcast/frank-meeink "Voices on Antisemitism"]—Interview with Frank Meeink from the U.S. Holocaust Memorial Museum
• [https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/acts-of-faith/wp/2017/08/14/russell-moore-white-supremacy-angers-jesus-but-does-it-anger-his-church/ "Russell Moore: White supremacy angers Jesus, but does it anger his church?"]—The president of the Ethics & Religious Liberty Commission of the Southern Baptist Convention
• [https://www.newyorker.com/culture/the-front-row/exterminate-all-the-brutes-reviewed-a-vast-agonizing-history-of-white-supremacy/ "Exterminate All the Brutes, Reviewed: A Vast, Agonizing History of White Supremacy"] (HBO Series), by Richard Brody, April 9, 2021, The New Yorker

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