Wine in China

{{Hatnote|For Chinese drinks sometimes translated as "wine" but not made from fermented grapes, see huangjiu and Chinese alcoholic beverages.}}

File:中国最早的葡萄藤.jpg from Yanghai, said to be the ancestor of wine in China. Turpan Museum.{{cite journal |last1=Jiang |first1=H. |title=Evidence for early viticulture in China: Proof of a grapevine (Vitis vinifera L., Vitaceae) in the Yanghai tombs, Xinjiang. |journal=Journal of Archaeological Science |date=2009 |volume=36 |issue=7 |pages=1458–1465 |doi=10.1016/j.jas.2009.02.010 |bibcode=2009JArSc..36.1458J |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0305440309000636#:~:text=A%20stem%20was%20discovered%20in,at%20least%20from%20that%20time.|quote=A stem was discovered in the Yanghai Tombs, Turpan District in Xinjiang, China. Anatomical features showed it to be of grape (Vitis vinifera L.). Radiocarbon dating indicates it to be nearly 2300 years old, which would suggest that there was grape cultivation at least from that time. To date, this is the earliest physical evidence of V. vinifera cultivation in China.(...) By the studying of the ancient grapevine, we have gained new insight into the viticulture in China. Based on the physical evidence, we have been able to confirm one of the conclusions drawn by Yang (2003), namely that the cultivated grape (V. vinifera) was introduced into Xinjiang around 300 BC. On the other hand, we would also argue that the earliest grape cultivation in China was not in the western and southern part of the Tarim Basin, but in the Turpan Basin, based on the evidence to date.|url-access=subscription }}]]

Wine (Chinese: {{lang|zh|{{linktext|葡萄酒}}}} pútáojiǔ lit. "grape alcohol") has a long history in China. Although long overshadowed by huangjiu (sometimes translated as "yellow wine") and the much stronger distilled spirit baijiu, wine consumption has grown dramatically since the economic reforms of the 1980s. China is now numbered among the top ten global markets for wine. Ties with French producers are especially strong, and Ningxia wines have received international recognition.

History

{{Quote box |width=35em |align=right |salign=right

|quote = :"The Song of the Grape" ({{lang|zh-Hant|葡萄歌}}), by Liu Yuxi (772–842)

:{{lang|zh-Hant|自言我晉人}} {{nbsp}}{{nbsp}} We men of Tsin [Jin 晉 = Shanxi], such grapes so fair,

:{{lang|zh-Hant|種此如種玉}} {{nbsp}}{{nbsp}} Do cultivate as gems most rare;

:{{lang|zh-Hant|釀之成美酒}} {{nbsp}}{{nbsp}} Of these delicious wine we make,

:{{lang|zh-Hant|令人飲不足}} {{nbsp}}{{nbsp}} For which men ne'er their thirst can slake.

:{{lang|zh-Hant|爲君持一斗}} {{nbsp}}{{nbsp}} Take but a measure of this wine,

:{{lang|zh-Hant|往取涼州牧}} {{nbsp}}{{nbsp}} And Liang-chow's [= Liangzhou's] rule is surely thine.{{sfn|Sampson|1869|p=52, cited in {{harvnb|Shafer|1963|p=145}}}}

}}

File:ForeignerWithWineskin-Earthenware-TangDynasty-ROM-May8-08.png (618–907), China started to import grape wine from Central Asia. Tang tricolor figurine of a Sogdian wine merchant holding a wineskin.]]

File:Chinese Materia Dietetica, Ming; Alcoholic beverages Wellcome L0039397.jpg (1368–1644)]]

Use of wild grapes in production of alcoholic beverages has been attested at the Jiahu archaeological site (c. 7000 BC).[https://www.penn.museum/sites/biomoleculararchaeology/?page_id=247]. Prehistoric China - The Wonders That Were Jiahu The World's Earliest Fermented Beverage. Professor Patrick McGovern the Scientific Director of the Biomolecular Archaeology Project for Cuisine, Fermented Beverages, and Health at the University of Pennsylvania Museum in Philadelphia. Retrieved on 3 January 2017.{{cite book|last1=Castro-Sowinski|first1=Susana|title=Microbial Models: From Environmental to Industrial Sustainability|date=17 November 2016|publisher=Springer|isbn=9789811025556|page=42|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hdqGDQAAQBAJ&q=wine+7000+bc+%22grape+wine%22&pg=PA42}}{{cite book|last1=Hames|first1=Gina|title=Alcohol in World History|date=2010|publisher=Routledge|isbn=9781317548706|page=17|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XPNTBAAAQBAJ&q=%22grape+wine%22+7000&pg=PA17}} High quality wine called qióng jiāng yù yè ({{lang-zh|c=瓊漿玉液}}) is mentioned in the Complete Tang Poems (Quan Tangshi), an 18th-century collection of around 50,000 poems compiled during the reign of the Kangxi Emperor.{{cite web |title=卷八百五十九:卷八百五十九 |url=https://ctext.org/quantangshi/859 |website=Chinese Text Project |access-date=6 August 2019}} The phrase translates literally to "jade-like wine", but has an idiomatic meaning along the lines of "wonderful wine".{{cite book |last1=Su |first1=Xinchuan |title=Chinese Lexical Semantics: 15th Workshop, CLSW 2014, Macao, China |date=2014 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-3319143316 |page=435 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ANklBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA435 |access-date=6 August 2019}}

In 1995, a joint Sino-USA archaeology team including archaeologists from the Archeology Research Institute of Shandong University and American archaeologists under the leadership of Professor Fang Hui investigated the two archaeological sites 20 km to the northeast of Rizhao, and discovered the remnants of a variety of alcoholic beverages including grape wine, rice wine, mead, and several mixed beverages of these wines. Out of more than two hundred ceramic pots discovered at the sites, seven were specifically used for grape wine. Remnants of grape seeds were also discovered.[http://lux.hexun.com/2008-08-05/107922272.html History of Chinese wine (in Chinese)] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110711164219/http://lux.hexun.com/2008-08-05/107922272.html |date=July 11, 2011 }} If grape wine consumption was once present in Bronze Age China, however, it was replaced by consumption of a range of alcoholic beverages made from sorghum, millet, rice, and fruits such as lychee or Asian plum.

In the 130s and 120s BC, a Chinese imperial envoy of the Han dynasty (206 BC – 220 AD) named Zhang Qian opened diplomatic relations with several Central Asian kingdoms, some of which produced grape wine. By the end of the second century BC, Han envoys had brought grape seeds from the wine-loving kingdom of Dayuan (Ferghana in modern Uzbekistan) back to China and had them planted on imperial lands near the capital Chang'an (near modern-day Xi'an in Shaanxi province).{{sfnm|Sima|1993|1pp=244–45 ("The Han envoys brought back grape and alfalfa seeds to China and the emperor for the first time tried growing these plants in areas of rich soil. Later, when the Han acquired large numbers of the 'heavenly horses' and the envoys from foreign states began to arrive with their retinues, the lands on all sides of the emperor's summer palace and pleasure towers were planted with grapes and alfalfa as far as the eye could see." [Shiji, chap. 123])|Black|2006|2p=167 ("it seems that grape seeds were brought back from Ferghana in modern Uzbekistan by General Chang Chien [Zhang Qian] during the Han dynasty between 136 and 121 BC and planted in Xinjiang and Shaanxi (Xian)")}} The Shennong Bencao Jing, a work on materia medica compiled in the late Han, states that grapes could be used to produce wine.{{sfn|Huang|2000|p=240}} In the Three Kingdoms era (220–280 AD), Wei emperor Cao Pi noted that grape wine "is sweeter than the wine made [from cereals] using ferments and sprouted grain. One recovers from it more easily when one has taken too much."{{sfn|Huang|2000|p=240}} Grapes continued to be grown in the following centuries, notably in the northwestern region of Gansu, but were not used to produce wine on a large scale. Wine thus remained an exotic product known by few people.{{sfn|Huang|2000|pp=240–1, citing Tao Hongjing's Mingyi Bielu 名醫別錄 for the claim that vines were successfully grown in several parts of Gansu, notably in Dunhuang}}

Not until the Tang dynasty (618–907) did the consumption of grape wines become more common. After the Tang conquest of Gaochang – an oasis state on the Silk Road located near Turfan in modern Xinjiang – in 641, the Chinese obtained the seeds of an elongated grape called "mare teat" (maru {{lang|zh-Hant|馬乳}}) and learned from Gaochang a "method of wine making" (jiu fa {{lang|zh-hant|酒法}}).{{sfn|Huang|2000|p=241}} Several Tang poets versified on grape wine, celebrating wine from the "Western Regions" – that from Liangzhou was particularly noted – or from Taiyuan in Shanxi, the latter of which produced wine made from the "mare teat" grape.{{sfn|Huang|2000|pp=241–2}} Meng Shen's 孟詵 Materia Dietetica (Shiliao Bencao 食療本草) and the government-sponsored Newly Compiled Materia Medica (Xinxiu bencao 新修本草; 652) record that Tang people produced naturally fermented wine.

China's "first modern winery" Changyu was founded in 1892 in Shandong province near the treaty port of Chefoo (now called Yantai) by the overseas Chinese entrepreneur Zhang Bishi.{{sfn|Godley|1986|p=383}}

Production

=National trends=

Image:Chateau-Changyu.jpg, Beiyujia Vineyards, Shandong, China]]

French wine was the first foreign wine imported into China. In 1980, at the beginning of Chinese economic reform, Rémy Martin ventured into China to set up the first joint-venture enterprise in Tianjin: the Dynasty (Wang Chao, 王朝) Wine Ltd., which was also the second joint-venture enterprise in China. Over the years, the company developed over 90 brands of alcoholic beverages, and its products won numerous awards both domestically and abroad.

However, most of its products were exported abroad in the first two decades due to the low income of the local population, and it was not until after the year 2000 when the economic boom finally provided the domestic population with sufficient disposable income to support the domestic market; this relatively recent occurrence coincided with the increased popularity of French wine in China. Other companies, including China Great Wall Wine Co., Ltd, Suntime and Changyu, have also risen in prominence, and by 2005, 90% of grape wine produced was consumed locally.[http://www.wines-info.com/html/192/5208.html Wine production in China - wines-info] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071127055849/http://www.wines-info.com/html/192/5208.html |date=November 27, 2007 }}

Also, as globalization has brought China onto the international economic scene, so too has its winemaking industry come onto the international wine scene. China has a long tradition of the fermentation and distillation of Chinese wine, including all alcoholic beverages and not necessarily grape wine, but is one of the most recent participants in the globalization of wine that started years ago in Paris, when several countries such as Canada realized that they may be able to produce wines as good as most French wine.

Quite recently, Chinese grape wine has begun appearing on shelves in California and in Western Canada. While some critics have treated these wines with the same type of disregard with which Chilean and Australian wines were once treated, others have recognized a new frontier with the potential to yield some interesting finds. Others have simply taken notice that China is producing drinkable table wines comparable to wines from other countries. Among the latest developments is the production of organic wine in Inner Mongolia.{{cite web|author=Hansen bioWine Group|title=Hansen BioWine from Inner Mongolia|url=http://biowine.org/|access-date=16 May 2014}}

As of 2012, a small number of large companies, such as Changyu Pioneer Wine, China Great Wall Wine Co., Ltd. and the Dynasty Wine Ltd., dominate domestic production. The total production of wine in 2004 was 370 thousand tons, a 15% increase from the previous year.{{cite web|date=September 2003|url=http://winebusiness.com/html/MonthlyArticle.cfm?dataId=27898|author=Chen Jun|title=Who Can Change Chinese People's Consumption Patterns?|publisher=Wine Business Monthly|access-date=15 May 2014}} {{subscription required}} The total market grew 58% between 1996 and 2001, and 68% between 2001 and 2006.[http://www.wines-info.com/html/192/6033.html Chinese Markets for Wines - wines-info] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071127055859/http://www.wines-info.com/html/192/6033.html |date=November 27, 2007 }}[http://www.wines-info.com/Newshtml/200708/1922007083011120525.html Chinese Wine Marketing Conference Highlights Advantages & Issues in China's Wine Industry - wines-info] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071127055329/http://www.wines-info.com/Newshtml/200708/1922007083011120525.html |date=November 27, 2007 }}

In 2008, wine merchant Berry Brothers and Rudd predicted that within 50 years the quality of Chinese wine will rival that of Bordeaux.{{cite web|last=Oliver Styles|publisher=Decanter.com|title= China to become leading wine producer? |url=http://www.decanter.com/news/wine-news/485835/china-to-become-leading-wine-producer|date= 9 May 2008|access-date=15 May 2014}}{{cite news|last=James Meikle|newspaper=The Guardian |title= Chateau China, a taste of wines to come with climate change |url= https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2008/may/09/food.fooddrinks |date= 9 May 2008 |location=London|access-date=16 May 2014}}

=Wine-producing regions=

Notable wine-producing regions include Beijing, Yantai, Zhangjiakou in Hebei, Yibin in Sichuan, Tonghua in Jilin, Taiyuan in Shanxi, and Ningxia. The largest producing region is Yantai-Penglai; with over 140 wineries, it produces 40% of China's wine.{{cite web|url=http://www.wines-info.com/Newshtml/200812/2282008123011241759.html |access-date=June 28, 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090215013857/http://wines-info.com/Newshtml/200812/2282008123011241759.html |archive-date=February 15, 2009 |title=The wine output of Yantai will reach 230000 kiloliters in 2008:wines-info }}

==Xinjiang==

China's Xinjiang Autonomous Region have an ancient history of viticulture going back to around the 4th Century BC, when Greek settlers brought the vine and more advanced irrigation techniques.{{Citation needed | date=May 2017}} However new archeological evidence has shown this to be untrue, because China produced grape wine, rice wine, mead (honey wine) 9000 years ago (7000 BC).{{cite book|last1=Odinsson|first1=Eoghan|title=Northern Lore: A Field Guide to the Northern Mind-Body-Spirit|date=2010|isbn=9781452851433|page=159|publisher=Eoghan Odinsson |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=V3sCCLcsJFkC&q=archaeological+evidence+mead+bc&pg=PA159}} The area around Turfan was, and still is, particularly noted for its grape production, and production of grape wines is mentioned in the historical record as well; Marco Polo mentioned that Carachoco (the name he used for Turfan) produced fine grape wines. The modern wine industry is largely patterned after French methods with a concentration on varieties like Cabernet. However, the Uighur traditional technique has survived especially in counties surrounding Kashgar. The Uighur home-made wine generally called "museles" (from Arabic "المثلث ", meaning "the triangle") is still being brewed by households in many villages. Unlike wines west of Xinjiang, the brewing of museles requires crushing of local varieties of grapes by hand, then strained using the Uighur atlas silk, then boiled with amount of water equal to the juice and desired portion of sugar, until the volume of the mixture is down to the original volume of the juice, then stored in clay urns together with folk recipes varying by localities---in some counties, traditional Uighur herbal medicines, and goji, mulberries, sea-buckthorn, cloves, etc. in others, and even raw and unfeathered pheasants or poussin in others. The brew usually takes more than a month to accomplish. It is then un-urned, filtered and bottled to be stored for long periods. In some villages, the ritual of communally gathering a mixture of folk museles brews in a large village urn marks the occasion following the harvest and process of grapes. Museles is now being standardized by the wine producing industry in China and marketed under the brand-name of Merceles.

==Ningxia==

In September 2011, Ningxia winery Helan Qingxue won the Decanter World Wine Award's Red Bordeaux Varietal Over £10 International Trophy for its 2009 Jiabeilan, a Cabernet sauvignon blend.{{Cite news|url=http://www.decanter.com/wine-news/chinese-wine-wins-top-honour-at-decanter-world-wine-awards-36689/|title=Chinese wine wins top honour at Decanter World Wine Awards - Decanter|date=2011-09-08|work=Decanter|access-date=2017-08-30|language=en-US}} This win was widely considered an upset, with some wine experts even questioning the veracity of origin of the wine.{{Cite web|url=http://www.grapewallofchina.com/2011/10/30/decanter-magazine-and-jia-bei-lan-2009-was-it-really-chinese-wine/|title=Decanter magazine and Jia Bei Lan 2009: Was it really Chinese wine?|date=2011-10-30|website=Grape Wall of China|access-date=2017-08-30}}{{Cite news|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/foodanddrink/wine/8747202/Lets-raise-a-glass-to-Chinas-wine.html|title=Let's raise a glass to China's wine|work=Telegraph.co.uk|access-date=2017-08-30|language=en}}{{Cite web|url=https://www.thebeijinger.com/blog/2011/05/23/chinese-wines-triumph-decanter-awards|title=Chinese Wines Triumph in Decanter Awards|last=esperegus|date=2011-05-23|website=www.thebeijinger.com|access-date=2017-08-30}}{{Cite web|url=https://www.jancisrobinson.com/articles/wine-advances-on-china|title=Wine advances on China |website=www.jancisrobinson.com|date=19 November 2011 |access-date=2017-08-30}}{{Cite news|url=https://onthegas.org/drink/silver-heights-wine-the-rise-of-chinese-wines|title=Silver Heights Wine - The Rise Of Chinese Wines|date=2013-03-19|work=On The Gas {{!}} The Art Science & Culture of Food|access-date=2017-08-30|language=en-US}} On 14 December 2011 in Beijing, in a competition tagged "Bordeaux against Ningxia", experts from China and France blind-tasted five wines from each region. Four out of five of the top wines were from Ningxia.{{cite news|url=https://blogs.wsj.com/scene/2011/12/15/ningxia-beats-bordeaux-or-does-it|author=Laurie Burkitt|title=Ningxia Beats Bordeaux. Or Does It?|newspaper=The Wall Street Journal|date=15 December 2011|access-date=16 December 2011}}{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tTAqDwAAQBAJ&q=%22Bordeaux+against+Ningxia%22&pg=PT191|title=The Booklovers' Guide To Wine: A Celebration of the History, the Mysteries and the Literary Pleasures of Drinking Wine|last=Alexander|first=Patrick|year=2017|publisher=Mango Media Inc.|isbn=9781633536074|language=en}} Emma Gao of Silver Heights Vineyard is one of the top winemakers in the region, her first vintage was praised by Chinese and international winemakers, and two of her red wines are among the best known produced in China.{{Cite web|title=Q&A: Emma Gao, winemaker-director, Silver Heights - Harpers Wine & Spirit Trade News|url=https://harpers.co.uk/news/fullstory.php/aid/21387/Q_A:_Emma_Gao,_winemaker-director,_Silver_Heights.html|access-date=2022-02-18|website=harpers.co.uk|language=en}}{{Cite web|date=2019-03-08|title=Top 10 most influential women in China's wine trade|url=https://www.thedrinksbusiness.com/2019/03/top-10-most-influential-women-in-chinas-wine-trade/|access-date=2022-02-17|website=The Drinks Business|language=en-US}}

== Shanxi ==

In the "Bordeaux against Ningxia" wine challenge held in Beijing in October 2011, Grace Vineyard's 2009 Chairman's Reserve, a 100% Cabernet Sauvignon, was voted best.{{cite web |url=http://en.grace-vineyard.com/about.html#box_brand_rim |title=About Grace Vineyard |website=Grace Vineyard|access-date= 30 December 2016}}

Consumption

=Market trends=

China is among the top ten wine markets in the world. According to a study by Vinexpo and International Wine and Spirits Research (IWSR), China was the world's fifth-largest consumer of wine (both domestic and imported) in 2011.{{cite web|title=US Tops Global Wine Consumption Chart|author=Alan Lodge|url=http://www.thedrinksbusiness.com/2012/01/us-tops-global-wine-consumption-chart|publisher= the drinks business|date=11 January 2012|access-date=15 May 2014}} A study by the same organizations revealed in 2014 estimates that 2.17 billion bottles of wine were consumed in China in 2013, keeping China in fifth place. Because Chinese mostly drink red wine, China is now the world's largest market for red wine. China's consumption of red wine has grown by 136% since 2008, whereas it has declined by 18% in France, the second-largest consumer.{{cite news|author=Gabriel Savage|date=28 January 2014|title=China Leaps Into Top Spot for Red Wine|publisher=the drinks business}} The United States remains the largest market for all types of wine (red, white, rosé, and sparkling), with total sales of approximately 4 billion bottles, slightly ahead of France and followed by Italy and the United Kingdom.{{cite news|title=China is now World's Biggest Consumer of Red Wine|author=Jason Chow|newspaper=The Wall Street Journal|date=29 January 2014|access-date=16 May 2014|url=https://blogs.wsj.com/scene/2014/01/29/china-is-now-worlds-biggest-consumer-of-red-wine/}}

The Chinese wine market has experienced a 20% annualized growth rate between 2006 and 2011, and is forecast to grow by another 54% by 2015.

In 2009, Sotheby's reported that Hong Kong had become the world's largest market for fine wines at auction, surpassing previous leaders New York City, and London.{{cite news| url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/foodanddrink/wine/6264679/Hong-Kong-becomes-worlds-largest-wine-market.html | location=London | work=The Daily Telegraph | author=Malcolm Moore | title=Hong Kong becomes world's largest wine market | date=6 October 2009|access-date=16 May 2014}}

=Products and availability=

Most medium to large restaurants, regardless of the fare, sell wine by the bottle, usually only red. Generally, only high-end restaurants serve wine by the glass. Wine sold by the bottle is also available at large KTV establishments, and major hotels.

Since around 2008, many small convenience stores have begun to carry a small selection of wines, with specialty wine shops emerging in cities throughout the country. These specialize in both foreign and domestic brands. Meanwhile, major supermarkets have steadily increased their selection, from several domestic brands, to a wide variety of wines from around the world. In addition, plenty varieties of wines are also available through online shops and platforms. Among these are sweetened, flavoured wines. These are made of a mixture of grape wine and a sweetened, flavoured drink similar to Kool-aid. These wines have similar labels to genuine wines, have an alcohol content of approximately 6%, and are much lower in price.

=Demographics and preferences=

A survey conducted with 1,440 respondents reveals that Chinese prefer red wine to white wine. 94% of the respondents consumed red wine, while only 35% of them drank white wine.{{Cite web|last=Poon|first=C H|date=26 November 2020|title=China's Wine and Spirits Market (1): Wine Consumption Trends and Habits|url=https://research.hktdc.com/en/article/NTgzNTI4NDg3|website=HKTDC Research}} This trend is, however, contrasting when measured among younger generations. Chinese young people prefer white to red wine and they consider the latter traditional and outdated.{{Cite book|last1=Capitello|first1=Roberta|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/312513234|title=The Wine Value Chain in China|last2=Charters|first2=Steve|last3=Menival|first3=David|last4=Yuan|first4=Jingxue (Jessica)|publisher=Elsevier Ltd.|year=2017|isbn=978-0-08-100754-9|pages=63–79}}

Statistics show that the main market for white wine is among females, who prefer it over beer, still the main alcoholic beverage for most males; red wine has become a symbol of the elite and rich and is usually used as a table wine. In 2005, 80% of vineyards produce red wine and 20% of vineyards produce white wine, while 90% of wine consumed as of 2007 is red wine.

=Method of consumption=

Both red and white wines are commonly served chilled. The wine may be poured into ordinary wine glasses in tiny amounts, or very small, glass baijiu glasses. When served at a table with more than two people, similar to the style of drinking baijiu, it is typically consumed during a group toast, and often with the entire glass being finished at once. This is particularly true when served during restaurant meals.

References

=Notes=

=Works cited=

{{citation|last=Black|first=Jeremy|year=2006|chapter=China – Ancient China|pages=[https://archive.org/details/oxfordcompaniont00janc/page/167 167–68]|title=The Oxford Companion to Wine|edition=3rd|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=Oxford|editor-last=Robinson|editor-first=Jancis|isbn=978-0-19-860990-2|postscript=.|chapter-url-access=registration|chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/oxfordcompaniont00janc/page/167}}
{{citation|last=Godley|first=Michael R.|year=1986|title=Bacchus in the East: The Chinese Grape Wine Industry, 1892–1938|journal=Business History Review|volume=60|issue=3|pages=383–409|postscript=.|jstor=3115883|doi=10.2307/3115883|s2cid=155074079 }} {{registration required}}
{{citation|last=Huang|first=H. T.|year=2000|title=Science & Civilisation in China, Volume VI: Biology and Biological Technology, Part 5: Fermentations and Food Science|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=Cambridge|postscript=.|isbn=0-521-65270-7}}
{{citation|last=Sampson|first=Theos.|year=1869|title=The Song of the Grape|journal=Notes and Queries on China and Japan|volume=3|pages=52|postscript=.}}
{{citation|last=Shafer|first=Edward H.|year=1963|title=The Golden Peaches of Samarkand: A Study of T'ang Exotics|publisher=University of California Press|location=Berkeley and Los Angeles|isbn=0-520-05462-8|postscript=.}}
{{citation|last=Sima|first=Qian|author-link=Sima Qian|others=Translated by Burton Watson|year=1993|orig-year=100 BC|title=Records of the Grand Historian, Han Dynasty II|edition=revised|publisher=Columbia University Press|location=New York|isbn=0-231-08166-9|postscript=.|title-link=Shiji}} {{ISBN|978-0-231-08167-2}} (paperback).
{{cite book |last1=Wang |first1=Janet |title=The Chinese Wine Renaissance |publisher=Ebury |isbn=9781529103601 |pages=5–249 |edition=1st|date=2019 }}

External links

http://www.ice.gov.it/paesi/asia/cina/upload/174/Chinese%20wine%20report%202010.pdf {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110722034757/http://www.ice.gov.it/paesi/asia/cina/upload/174/Chinese%20wine%20report%202010.pdf |date=2011-07-22 }}

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Category:Chinese drinks

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