Wisconsin Card Sorting Test

Stimulus cards are shown to the participant and the participant is then instructed to match the cards.{{cite journal |last1=Grant |first1=D. A. |last2=Berg |first2=E. A. |title=Wisconsin Card Sorting Test |url=https://doi.org/10.1037/t31298-000 |website=APA Psycnet |date=2014 |doi=10.1037/t31298-000 |access-date=7 August 2024|url-access=subscription }} They are not given instructions on how to match the cards but are given feedback when the matches they make are right or wrong.{{Cite journal |last=Barceló |first=Francisco |date=2001 |title=Does the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test Measure Prefontral Function? |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/S1138741600005680/type/journal_article |journal=The Spanish Journal of Psychology |language=en |volume=4 |issue=1 |pages=79–100 |doi=10.1017/S1138741600005680 |pmid=11705346 |s2cid=10432180 |issn=1138-7416|url-access=subscription }}

When the test was first released the method of showing the cards was done with an evaluator using paper cards with the evaluator on one side of the desk facing the participant on the other.{{Cite journal |last1=Jodzio |first1=Krzysztof |last2=Biechowska |first2=Daria |date=2010-11-30 |title=Wisconsin Card Sorting Test as a Measure of Executive Function Impairments in Stroke Patients |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/09084282.2010.525104 |journal=Applied Neuropsychology |language=en |volume=17 |issue=4 |pages=267–277 |doi=10.1080/09084282.2010.525104 |pmid=21154040 |s2cid=205615311 |issn=0908-4282|url-access=subscription }} The test takes approximately 12–20 minutes to carry out using manual scoring which is greatly reduced with the aid of computer testing.{{Cite journal |last1=Feldstein |first1=Simeon N. |last2=Keller |first2=Frederick R. |last3=Portman |first3=Rebecca E. |last4=Durham |first4=Robert L. |last5=Klebe |first5=Kelli J. |last6=Davis |first6=Hasker P. |date=1999 |title=A Comparison of Computerized and Standard Versions of the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1076/clin.13.3.303.1744 |journal=The Clinical Neuropsychologist |language=en |volume=13 |issue=3 |pages=303–313 |doi=10.1076/clin.13.3.303.1744 |pmid=10726602 |issn=1385-4046|url-access=subscription }}Heaton, R. K., & Staff, P. A. R. (1993). Wisconsin card sorting test: computer version 2. Odessa: Psychological Assessment Resources, 4, 1-4. The test results produce a number of useful psychometric scores, including numbers, percentages, and percentiles of: categories achieved, trials, errors, and perseverative errors.{{Cite journal |last=Romine |first=C |date=2004 |title=Wisconsin Card Sorting Test with children: a meta-analytic study of sensitivity and specificity |journal=Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology |language=en |volume=19 |issue=8 |pages=1027–1041 |doi=10.1016/j.acn.2003.12.009|pmid=15533695 |doi-access=free }}{{Cite journal |last1=Bowden |first1=Stephen C. |last2=Fowler |first2=Kylie S. |last3=Bell |first3=Richard C. |last4=Whelan |first4=Gregory |last5=Clifford |first5=Christine C. |last6=Ritter |first6=Alison J. |last7=Long |first7=Caroline M. |date=1998 |title=The Reliability and Internal Validity of the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test |url=http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/713755573 |journal=Neuropsychological Rehabilitation |language=en |volume=8 |issue=3 |pages=243–254 |doi=10.1080/713755573 |issn=0960-2011|url-access=subscription }}

The WCST has been shown to be reliable and valid in multiple populations including people with autism,{{Cite journal |last=Ozonoff |first=Sally |date=1995 |title=Reliability and validity of the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test in studies of autism. |url=http://doi.apa.org/getdoi.cfm?doi=10.1037/0894-4105.9.4.491 |journal=Neuropsychology |language=en |volume=9 |issue=4 |pages=491–500 |doi=10.1037/0894-4105.9.4.491 |issn=1931-1559|url-access=subscription }} people recovering from a stroke,{{Cite journal |last1=Chiu |first1=En-Chi |last2=Wu |first2=Wen-Chi |last3=Hung |first3=Jen-Wen |last4=Tseng |first4=Yu-Hsuan |date=2018-07-31 |title=Validity of the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test in patients with stroke |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/09638288.2017.1323020 |journal=Disability and Rehabilitation |language=en |volume=40 |issue=16 |pages=1967–1971 |doi=10.1080/09638288.2017.1323020 |pmid=28494623 |s2cid=205662922 |issn=0963-8288|url-access=subscription }} pediatric populations,{{Cite journal |last1=Lichtenstein |first1=Jonathan D. |last2=Erdodi |first2=Laszlo A. |last3=Rai |first3=Jaspreet K. |last4=Mazur-Mosiewicz |first4=Anya |last5=Flaro |first5=Lloyd |date=2018-02-17 |title=Wisconsin Card Sorting Test embedded validity indicators developed for adults can be extended to children |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/09297049.2016.1259402 |journal=Child Neuropsychology |language=en |volume=24 |issue=2 |pages=247–260 |doi=10.1080/09297049.2016.1259402 |pmid=27892806 |s2cid=4546591 |issn=0929-7049|url-access=subscription }} and psychiatric populations.{{Cite journal |last1=Bell |first1=Morris D. |last2=Greig |first2=Tamasine Conway |last3=Kaplan |first3=Edward |last4=Bryson |first4=Gary |date=1997 |title=Wisconsin card sorting test dimensions in schizophrenia: Factorial, predictive, and divergent validity |url=http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/01688639708403774 |journal=Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology |language=en |volume=19 |issue=6 |pages=933–941 |doi=10.1080/01688639708403774 |pmid=9524888 |issn=1380-3395|url-access=subscription }}

Since 1948, the test has been used by neuropsychologists and clinical psychologists in patients with acquired brain injury,{{Cite journal |last1=Greve |first1=Kevin W. |last2=Bianchini |first2=Kevin J. |last3=Mathias |first3=Charles W. |last4=Houston |first4=Rebecca J. |last5=Crouch |first5=John A. |date=2002 |title=Detecting Malingered Performance With the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test: A Preliminary Investigation in Traumatic Brain Injury |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1076/clin.16.2.179.13241 |journal=The Clinical Neuropsychologist |language=en |volume=16 |issue=2 |pages=179–191 |doi=10.1076/clin.16.2.179.13241 |pmid=12221480 |s2cid=42534630 |issn=1385-4046|url-access=subscription }}{{Cite journal |last=Drewe |first=E.A. |date=1974 |title=The Effect of Type and Area of Brain Lesion on Wisconsin Card Sorting Test Performance |journal=Cortex |language=en |volume=10 |issue=2 |pages=159–170 |doi=10.1016/S0010-9452(74)80006-7|pmid=4844468 |doi-access=free }} neurodegenerative disease, or mental illness such as schizophrenia.{{cite journal |vauthors=Banno M, Koide T, Aleksic B, et al | year = 2012 | title = Wisconsin Card Sorting Test scores and clinical and sociodemographic correlates in schizophrenia: multiple logistic regression analysis | journal = BMJ Open | volume = 2 | issue = 6| pages = e001340 | doi=10.1136/bmjopen-2012-001340| pmid = 23135537 | pmc = 3533115 | doi-access = free }} It is one of several psychological tests which can be administered to patients to measure frontal lobe dysfunction.{{Cite journal |last1=Anderson |first1=Steven W. |last2=Damasio |first2=Hanna |last3=Jones |first3=R. Dallas |last4=Tranel |first4=Daniel |date=1991 |title=Wisconsin Card Sorting Test Performance as a Measure of Frontal Lobe Damage |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/01688639108405107 |journal=Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology |language=en |volume=13 |issue=6 |pages=909–922 |doi=10.1080/01688639108405107 |pmid=1779030 |issn=0168-8634|url-access=subscription }}{{Cite journal |last1=Robinson |first1=Amy L. |last2=Heaton |first2=Robert K. |last3=Lehman |first3=Ralph A. |last4=Stilson |first4=Donald W. |date=1980 |title=The utility of the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test in detecting and localizing frontal lobe lesions. |url=http://doi.apa.org/getdoi.cfm?doi=10.1037/0022-006X.48.5.605 |journal=Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology |language=en |volume=48 |issue=5 |pages=605–614 |doi=10.1037/0022-006X.48.5.605 |pmid=7410659 |issn=1939-2117|url-access=subscription }} When administered, the WCST allows the clinician to speculate to the following frontal lobe functions: strategic planning, organized searching, utilizing environmental feedback to shift cognitive sets, directing behavior toward achieving a goal, and modulating impulsive responding.{{Cite journal |last1=Weyandt |first1=Lisa L. |last2=Willis |first2=W. Grant |date=1994 |title=Executive functions in school-aged children: Potential efficacy of tasks in discriminating clinical groups |url=http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/87565649409540564 |journal=Developmental Neuropsychology |language=en |volume=10 |issue=1 |pages=27–38 |doi=10.1080/87565649409540564 |issn=8756-5641|url-access=subscription }}{{Cite journal |last1=Rzezak |first1=Patricia |last2=Fuentes |first2=Daniel |last3=Guimarães |first3=Catarina A. |last4=Thome-Souza |first4=Sigride |last5=Kuczynski |first5=Evelyn |last6=Guerreiro |first6=Marilisa |last7=Valente |first7=Kette D.R. |date=2009 |title=Executive dysfunction in children and adolescents with temporal lobe epilepsy: Is the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test enough? |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S152550500900225X |journal=Epilepsy & Behavior |language=en |volume=15 |issue=3 |pages=376–381 |doi=10.1016/j.yebeh.2009.04.014|pmid=19379836 |s2cid=19431911 |url-access=subscription }} The test can be administered to those from 6.5 years to 89 years of age.{{Cite journal |last=Rhodes |first=Matthew G. |date=2004 |title=Age-Related Differences in Performance on the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test: A Meta-Analytic Review. |url=http://doi.apa.org/getdoi.cfm?doi=10.1037/0882-7974.19.3.482 |journal=Psychology and Aging |language=en |volume=19 |issue=3 |pages=482–494 |doi=10.1037/0882-7974.19.3.482 |pmid=15382998 |issn=1939-1498|url-access=subscription }}{{Cite journal |last1=Chelune |first1=Gordon J. |last2=Baer |first2=Ruth A. |date=1986 |title=Developmental norms for the wisconsin card sorting test |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/01688638608401314 |journal=Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology |language=en |volume=8 |issue=3 |pages=219–228 |doi=10.1080/01688638608401314 |pmid=3722348 |issn=0168-8634|url-access=subscription }} The WCST, relies upon a number of cognitive functions including attention, working memory, and visual processing.{{Cite journal |last1=Barceló |first1=Francisco |last2=Muñoz-Céspedes |first2=Juan M |last3=Pozo |first3=Miguel A |last4=Rubia |first4=Francisco J |date=2000 |title=Attentional set shifting modulates the target P3b Response in the Wisconsin card sorting test |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0028393200000464 |journal=Neuropsychologia |language=en |volume=38 |issue=10 |pages=1342–1355 |doi=10.1016/S0028-3932(00)00046-4|pmid=10869577 |s2cid=10663176 |url-access=subscription }}{{Cite journal |last1=Wang |first1=Lihong |last2=Kakigi |first2=Ryusuke |last3=Hoshiyama |first3=Minoru |date=2001 |title=Neural activities during Wisconsin Card Sorting Test — MEG observation |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0926641001000222 |journal=Cognitive Brain Research |language=en |volume=12 |issue=1 |pages=19–31 |doi=10.1016/S0926-6410(01)00022-2|pmid=11489605 |url-access=subscription }}{{Cite journal |last=Berman |first=K |date=1995 |title=Physiological activation of a cortical network during performance of the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test: A positron emission tomography study |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/0028393295000352 |journal=Neuropsychologia |language=en |volume=33 |issue=8 |pages=1027–1046 |doi=10.1016/0028-3932(95)00035-2|pmid=8524452 |s2cid=21624133 |url-access=subscription }} The WCST was originally developed to measure abstract reasoning{{Cite journal |last1=Eling |first1=Paul |last2=Derckx |first2=Kristianne |last3=Maes |first3=Roald |date=2008 |title=On the historical and conceptual background of the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0278262608000250 |journal=Brain and Cognition |language=en |volume=67 |issue=3 |pages=247–253 |doi=10.1016/j.bandc.2008.01.006|pmid=18328609 |s2cid=205788199 |hdl=2066/73651 |hdl-access=free }} as such it may be used to help measure an individual's competence in abstract reasoning, and the ability to change problem-solving strategies when needed.{{cite journal |vauthors=Biederam J, Faraone S, Monutaeux M, etal | year = 2000 | title = Neuropsychological functioning in nonreferred siblings of children with attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder | journal = Journal of Abnormal Psychology | volume = 109 | issue = 2| pages = 252–65 | doi=10.1037/0021-843X.109.2.252| pmid = 10895563 }}{{Cite journal |last1=Teubner-Rhodes |first1=Susan |last2=Vaden |first2=Kenneth I. |last3=Dubno |first3=Judy R. |last4=Eckert |first4=Mark A. |date=2017 |title=Cognitive persistence: Development and validation of a novel measure from the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test |journal=Neuropsychologia |language=en |volume=102 |pages=95–108 |doi=10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2017.05.027 |pmc=5538310 |pmid=28552783}} In this test, a number of cards are presented to the participants. The figures on the cards differ with respect to color, quantity, and shape.US National Library of Medicine National Institutes of Health, 2009

Psychological tests such as the WCST, administered alone, cannot be used to measure the effects of a frontal lobe injury, or the aspects of cognitive function it may affect, such as working memory; a variety of tests must be used.{{Cite journal |last1=Mountain |first1=Mary Ann |last2=Snow |first2=William G. |date=1993 |title=Wisconsin card sorting test as a measure of frontal pathology: A review |url=http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/13854049308401893 |journal=Clinical Neuropsychologist |language=en |volume=7 |issue=1 |pages=108–118 |doi=10.1080/13854049308401893 |issn=0920-1637|url-access=subscription }}{{Cite journal |last1=Stuss |first1=D.T. |last2=Levine |first2=B. |last3=Alexander |first3=M.P. |last4=Hong |first4=J. |last5=Palumbo |first5=C. |last6=Hamer |first6=L. |last7=Murphy |first7=K.J. |last8=Izukawa |first8=D. |date=2000 |title=Wisconsin Card Sorting Test performance in patients with focal frontal and posterior brain damage: effects of lesion location and test structure on separable cognitive processes |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0028393299000937 |journal=Neuropsychologia |language=en |volume=38 |issue=4 |pages=388–402 |doi=10.1016/S0028-3932(99)00093-7|pmid=10683390 |s2cid=23448920 |url-access=subscription }} A participant may be good at one task but show dysfunction in executive function overall. Similarly, test results can be made misleading after testing the same individual over a long period of time. The participant may get better at a task, but not because of an improvement in executive cognitive function; they may have simply learned some strategies for doing this particular task that made it no longer a good measurement tool.Kane, M.J. & Engle, R.W. (2002). "The role of prefontal cortex in working-memory capacity, executive attention, and general fluid intelligence: An individual-differences perspective." Psychonomic Bulletin & Review 9(4), 637-671. Retrieved from {{cite web|url=http://psychology.gatech.edu/renglelab/Publications/2002/The%20role%20of%20prefrontal%20cortex%20in%20working-memory%20capacity.pdf |title=Archived copy |access-date=2011-12-31 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111227095933/http://psychology.gatech.edu/renglelab/Publications/2002/The%20role%20of%20prefrontal%20cortex%20in%20working-memory%20capacity.pdf |archive-date=2011-12-27 }}{{Cite journal |last1=Basso |first1=Michael R. |last2=Lowery |first2=Natasha |last3=Ghormley |first3=Courtney |last4=Bornstein |first4=Robert A. |date=2001 |title=Practice Effects on the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test–64 Card Version Across 12 Months |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1076/clin.15.4.471.1883 |journal=The Clinical Neuropsychologist |language=en |volume=15 |issue=4 |pages=471–478 |doi=10.1076/clin.15.4.471.1883 |pmid=11935448 |s2cid=28784781 |issn=1385-4046|url-access=subscription }}

{{Reflist}}

• {{cite book |title=A Compendium of Neuropsychological Tests: Administration, Norms, and Commentary |last1=Strauss |first1=Esther |last2=Sherman |first2=Elizabeth M. |last3=Spreen |first3=Otfried |date=2006 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford |isbn=978-0-19-515957-8 |url=http://global.oup.com/academic/product/a-compendium-of-neuropsychological-tests-9780195159578 |access-date=14 July 2013 }}

• [http://www.psytoolkit.org/experiment-library/wcst.html Online demonstration of the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test] via [http://www.psytoolkit.org PsyToolkit]
• [https://play.google.com/store/apps/details?id=com.wisconsin Android application, which demonstrates the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test] via [https://play.google.com/store/apps/dev?id=4935634290012985526 Metatrans Apps]

{{Neuropsychology tests}}

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{{DEFAULTSORT:Wisconsin Card Sort}}

Category:Cognitive tests

Category:Neuropsychological tests