Women's political participation in India

The Constitution of India establishes a parliamentary system of government that guarantees its citizens the right to be elected, freedom of speech, freedom to assemble and to form associations, and to vote.{{cite web|last=Government of India|title=The Constitution of India|url=http://lawmin.nic.in/olwing/coi/coi-english/coi-indexenglish.htm|publisher=Ministry of Law and Justice|accessdate=22 March 2014}} The Constitution of India attempted to remove gender inequalities by banning discrimination based on sex and class, prohibiting human trafficking and forced labor, and reserving elected positions for women.{{Cite web |title=Constitution of India{{!}}Legislative Department {{!}} Ministry of Law and Justice {{!}} GoI |url=https://legislative.gov.in/constitution-of-india |access-date=2023-02-20 |website=legislative.gov.in}}

The Government of India directed state and local governments to promote class and gender equality by including equal pay, free legal aid, humane working conditions, maternity relief, the rights to work and education and raising the standard of living.{{cite web|last=Constitution of India|title=Directive Principles of State Policy|url=http://www.constitution.org/cons/india/p04.html|publisher=Government of India|accessdate=22 March 2014}} Women played a significant role during the Indian independence movement of the early 20th century. Independence brought gender equality in the form of constitutional rights, but historically, women's political participation had and still has remained low.{{cite journal|last=Praveen|first=Rai|title=Electoral Participation of Women in India: Key Determinants and Barriers|journal=Economic and Political Weekly|date=14 January 2011|volume=XVLI|issue=3|pages=47–55}}

The movement for women's suffrage began in the early 1900s in response to a national movement for suffrage. The vast majority of women and men however, did not have the right to vote under British colonial rule of India, which ended in 1947. In 1950 the Indian Constitution officially granted suffrage to both women and men. Prior to universal suffrage, provincial legislatures had also granted women the right to vote.

Madras was the first state to grant women's suffrage in 1921, but only to men and women who owned property according to the British administration's records.Mithra, H.N. (2009). The Govt of India ACT 1919 Rules Thereunder and Govt Reports 1920, {{ISBN|978-1-113-74177-6}} The rights granted in response to the movement towards suffrage were limited to qualifications of literacy and property ownership, including property ownership of husbands. This excluded the vast majority of Indian women and men from voting. This changed in 1950 when universal suffrage was granted to all adult Indian citizens.

In 1950, universal suffrage granted voting rights to all women. This is enshrined in Article 326 in the Indian Constitution. India is a parliamentary system with two houses: Lok Sabha (lower house) and Rajya Sabha (upper house). Rates of participation among women in 1962 were 46.63% for Lok Sabha elections and rose to a high in 1984 of 58.60%. Male turnout during that same period was 63.31% in 1962 and 68.18% in 1984.

The gap between men and women voters has narrowed over time with a difference of 16.7% in 1962 to 4.4% in 2009.{{cite web|last=Chief Electoral Officer|title=Voting Percentage in Various Lok Sabha Elections|url=http://ceo.uk.gov.in/pages/view/165/169-voting-percentage-in-various-lok-sabha-elections|publisher=Government of Uttarakhand, India|accessdate=22 March 2014}}

Voter turnout for national elections in the past 50 years has remained stagnant with turnout ranging between 50 and 60%. State elections have seen a growing trend in women's participation, and in some cases women's turnout is exceeding male turnout.{{cite news|last=Rukmini|first=S|title=Who is behind the rise in voter turnouts?|url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/who-is-behind-the-rise-in-voter-turnouts/article5418326.ece|work=The Hindu|date=3 December 2013|accessdate=22 March 2014}} Increased turnout of women was reported for the 2012 Vidhan Sabha elections (legislative/state assemblies) with states such as Uttar Pradesh reporting 58.82% to 60.29% turnout. In the 2013 assembly elections, women's overall turnout was reported to be 47.4%, and male turnout was 52.5%. Indian states of Arunachal Pradesh, Goa, Kerala, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Daman and Diu, and Puducherry all reported higher turnouts among women than men in 2013.{{cite web|last=Election Commission of India|title=Electoral Roll Data - 2013|url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/eroll&epic/ERoll2013.pdf|accessdate=22 March 2014}}

Increased participation is occurring in both rich and poor states in India. The sex ratio of voters has improved from 715 female voters for every 1,000 male voters in the 1960s to 883 female voters in the 2000s.{{cite news|last=Rukmini|first=S|title=Rising female voter turnout, the big story of 50 years|url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/rising-female-voter-turnout-the-big-story-of-50-years/article5326782.ece|work=The Hindu|date=7 November 2013|accessdate=22 March 2014}} The Election Commission of India (ECI) has sought to increase voter turnout by cleaning up electoral rolls and removing missing or deceased members. Voter outreach has included door-to-door voter registration, and in 2014 elections, voters were be issued a photo id with polling station information to increase voter turnout.{{cite news|last=Tembhekar|first=Chittaranjan|title=EC to give photo voter slips|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/mumbai/EC-to-give-photo-voter-slips/articleshow/31627791.cms|accessdate=28 March 2014|newspaper=The Times of India|date=8 March 2014}} ECI has sought to encourage voter registration among women and participation through education and outreach on college and university campuses. Growing participation has also been attributed to increased security at polling stations.{{cite web|last=Rout|first=Akshay|title=Women's Participation in the Electoral Process|url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main1/SVEEP/WomensParticipation18Dec,2013-%20AkshayRout_DG_ECI.ppt|publisher=Election Commission of India|accessdate=22 March 2014}}

Turnout for women during India's 2014 parliamentary general elections was 65.63%, compared to 67.09% turnout for men.[https://archive.today/20150407003747/http://pib.nic.in/newsite/PrintRelease.aspx?relid=105116 State-Wise Voter Turnout in General Elections 2014] Government of India (2014) In 16 out of 29 states of India, more women voted than men. A total of 260.6 million women exercised their right to vote in April–May 2014 elections for India's parliament.{{Cite web |last=Nirola |first=Basanta |date=2017-08-10 |title=Women’s participation in Assam politics needs an upward thrust |url=https://thenewsmill.com/2017/08/womens-participation-assam-politics-needs-upward-thrust/ |access-date=2025-03-12 |website=thenewsmill.com |language=en-US}}

{{Bar chart

| title = Women politicians in Lok Sabha{{cite web | url=https://www.dailypioneer.com/2019/india/17th-lok-sabha-to-see-more-women-power.html | title=17th Lok Sabha to see more women power | work=Daily Pioneer | date=25 May 2019 | access-date=6 September 2019}}

| label_type = Lok Sabha
(Year elected)

| data_type = No. of women politicians elected

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| data_max = 100

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| label1 = 17th
(2019)

| data1 = 78

| label2 = 16th
(2014)

| data2 = 64

| label3 = 15th
(2009)

| data3 = 52

}}

India has a federal form of government, with devolved powers. The electorate votes to elect a national parliament as well as state assemblies. In 2012, India had a minimal percentage of 10.9% women elected representatives in the national parliament, which is, but relatively higher than Hungary (8.8%), Brazil (9.6%), China (9.1%), and Malaysia (9.8%).{{cite web|last=United Nations Development Programme|title=Gender Inequality Index|url=http://data.un.org/DocumentData.aspx?q=HDi&id=332|publisher=Human Development Indices: A statistical update 2012|accessdate=22 March 2014}}

A broader measure of political participation includes the number of women candidates who compete for elections and women in state assemblies. According to World Economic Forum's annual global gender gap index studies, which considers such a broader scale, India has ranked in top 20 countries worldwide for many years, with 9th-best in 2013 - a score reflecting more women's participation in India's political process than Denmark, Switzerland, Germany, France and United Kingdom.[http://www3.weforum.org/docs/WEF_GenderGap_Report_2012.pdf The Global Gender Gap Report 2012], World Economic Forum, Switzerland, page 16[http://www3.weforum.org/docs/WEF_GenderGap_Report_2013.pdf The Global Gender Gap Report 2013], World Economic Forum, Switzerland, Table 3b and 5, page 13 and 19

To remedy low participation of women electors, India in 1994 established quotas (reservations) in constitutional amendments (73rd and 74th) to reserve 33% of seats in local governments for women.{{cite web|last=Rai |first=M. Shirin|title=Reserved Seats in South Asia: A Regional Perspective|publisher=Women in Parliament: Beyond Numbers}} The Women's Reservation Bill (108th amendment) has been introduced in the national parliament to reserve 33% of Lok Sabha and Vidhan Sabha seats for women.{{cite web|last=PRS Legislative Research|title=Women's Reservation Bill [The Constitution (108th Amendment) Bill, 2008]|url=http://www.prsindia.org/billtrack/womens-reservation-bill-the-constitution-108th-amendment-bill-2008-45/|publisher=PRSIndia.org|accessdate=22 March 2014}} The bill has yet to be passed by Lok Sabha and signed into law. A similar bill, Nari Shakti Vandan Adhiniyam, was passed by the Lok Sabha and Rajya Sabha in 2023, and is now pending assent by the female president of India, Droupadi Murmu.{{cite web | url=https://www.news18.com/videos/breaking-news/nari-shakti-vandan-adhiniyam-women-s-reservation-bill-passed-in-rajya-sabha-pm-modi-news18-8586817.html | title=Nari Shakti Vandan Adhiniyam | Women's Reservation Bill Passed in Rajya Sabha | PM Modi | News18 }}{{cite news | url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/lok-sabha-passes-womens-reservation-bill/article67327458.ece | title=Lok Sabha passes historic women's reservation Bill | newspaper=The Hindu | date=20 September 2023 | last1=Phukan | first1=Sandeep }} The discussion of women's reservations began in the 1920s and continued into the 1930s until a compromise was reached with Britain to allow women in urban areas to vote. Discussion of women's reservations were again introduced in 1974 by the United Nations Commission on the Status of Women in India, but India did not fully establish quotas in local government until 1994.{{cite web|last=Raman|first=Vasanthi|title=The Implementation of Quotas for Women: The Indian Experience|url=http://www.quotaproject.org/cs/cs_india.pdf|work=Centre for Women's Development Studies|date=25 September 2023 |publisher=International Institute for Democracy and Electoral Assistance}} Local governing bodies in India are called Panchayati Raj Institutions (PRI) and one-third of seats and leadership positions must be reserved for women. States such as Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, Kerala, Maharashtra, Orissa, Rajasthan, Tripura, and Uttarakhand have increased reservations to 50%. The national government has also proposed to raise the level of reservations in PRIs to 50%.{{cite web|last=Ministry of Panchayati Raj|title=Women Reservation in Panchayats|url=http://www.pib.nic.in/newsite/erelease.aspx?relid=74501|publisher=Press Information Bureau, Government of India|accessdate=22 March 2014}}

Seats reserved for women are rotated for assurance that each seat has an equal chance of being reserved. After the establishment of women's reservations, political participation went from 4-5% to 25-40% among women, and gave millions of women the opportunity to serve as leaders in local government.{{cite journal|last=Kaul|first=Shashi|author2=Shradha Sahni |title=Study on the Participation of Women in Panchayati Raj Institution|journal=Studies on Home and Community Science|year=2009|volume=3|issue=1|pages=29–38|doi=10.1080/09737189.2009.11885273|s2cid=39386599}} Odisha, an Indian state, established reservations prior to the 73rd amendment and they had 28,069 women elected in 1992 and 28,595 women in 1997. Class differences have manifested with poorer women gaining presence in panchayats, but women of a higher class being elected as chairpersons (sarpanch).

Concerns remain in reserving seats for women in elected positions. The issue of training has become an increasing concern with preparing women for the role of leadership. It was found in Tamil Nadu that women lack the education and training to understand procedures in panchayats.{{cite journal|last=Deininger|first=Klaus|author2=Hari K. Nagarajan |title=Can Political Reservations Empower Women and Affect Economic Outcomes? Evidence from Rural India|journal=National Council of Applied Economic Research|year=2011|volume=4|url=http://www.eea-esem.com/files/papers/eea-esem/2012/693/paper%204_Woman%20empowerment.pdf}} Family also plays a significant role in women's participation in government. Familial influence can be a barrier or a support system for female elected officials in terms of connections. Family connections can help women seek elected positions at both the national and local government level. There has been concern over the role of women as proxies for male family members, but women may still have important effects on policy decisions.{{cite journal |last1=Chattopadhyay |first1=Raghabendra |first2=Esther |last2=Duflo |year=2004 |title=Women as Policymakers: Evidence from an India-Wide Randomized Policy Experiment |journal=Econometrica |volume=72 |issue=5 |pages=1409–1443 |doi=10.1111/j.1468-0262.2004.00539.x |hdl=1721.1/39126 |url=http://s3.amazonaws.com/fieldexperiments-papers2/papers/00224.pdf |hdl-access=free }} The effect of reservation for women has been increased in the number of public goods, including water and roads. Drinking water and road improvements are issues that are most frequently raised by female elected officials. The most significant issues for men are roads, irrigation, education, and water. Women are also likely to bring welfare issues such as violence against women, childcare, and maternal health to consideration.

File:PratibhaIndia.jpg

India has a multi-party system with 7 registered parties at the national level.{{cite web|last=Sadan|first=Nirvachan|title=List of political parties and election symbols-regarding|url=http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/ElectoralLaws/OrdersNotifications/year2014/AdditionalRegistered-UnrecognisedParties_22032014.pdf|publisher=Electionl Commission of India|accessdate=24 March 2014}} The three largest parties in India are the Indian National Congress (INC), the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP), and the Communist Party of India (CPI).{{cite web|last=Basu|first=Amrita|title=Women, Political Parties and Social Movements in South Asia|url=http://old.iknowpolitics.org/files/political%20parties%20in%20South%20Asia%20_UNRISD.pdf|publisher=United Nations Research Institute for Social Development|accessdate=24 March 2014}} Political parties have increased outreach among women voters as India's party system has become more competitive. This has included the creation of women's wings in the largest parties. The BJP's wing is the BJP Mahila Morcha, the INC's wing is All India Mahila Congress, and the CPI's wing is the National Federation of Indian Women.

Women's involvement in political parties is tied to the increasing demand for equal rights. The INC held power until the 1990s. As the INC moved away from welfare politics, other parties arose to challenge the INC using poverty as the center of their agenda. The INC regained power in 2004 with the help of women's participation. The INC has increased women's participation by instituting a 33% quota for women in all levels of the party. In June 2009, the INC nominated a woman to become first speaker of Lok Sabha, and also supported the election of Pratibha Patil, India's first female president.{{cite journal|last=Ballington|first=Julie|title=Empowering Women for Stronger Political Parties: A Guidebook to Promote Women's Political Participation|journal=United National Development Programme|date=February 2012 |series=National Democratic Institute for International Affairs |url=http://www.undp.org/content/dam/undp/library/gender/gender%20and%20governance/EmpoweringWomenFor%20StrongerPoliticalParties.pdf |accessdate=24 March 2014|display-authors=etal}} Women were involved in the early establishment of the BJP. The BJP has encouraged greater representation of women by developing women's leadership programs, financial assistance for women candidates, and implementing a 33% reservation for women in party leadership positions. BJP has received women's support by focusing on issues such as the Uniform Civil Code to extend equal rights to women and men regardless of religion. They have also spoken out against violence against Indian women. The CPI has also supported gender inequality issues including addressing issues of violence Nikita Ekta Ullu through the National Federation of Indian Women.{{cite book|last=Goetz|first=Anne Marie|title=Governing Women: Women's Political Effectiveness in Contexts of Democratization and Governance Reform|year=2009|publisher=Routledge|location=New York|pages=Chapter 5}}

Women's participation in political parties remained low in the 1990s with 10-12% membership consisting of women. Indian women have also taken the initiative to form their own political parties, and in 2007, the United Women Front party was created, and has advocated for increasing the reservation of seats for women in parliament to 50%.{{cite journal|last=Raman|first=Nachammai|title=In India, a party for women only|url=http://www.csmonitor.com/2007/1211/p07s02-wosc.html|journal=The Christian Science Monitor|date=11 December 2007 |accessdate=24 March 2014}} Women only govern four of India's political parties. From 1980 to 1970, 4.3% of candidates and 70% of electoral races had no women candidates at all.{{cite journal|last=Bhalotra|first=Sonia |author2=Irm Clots-Figueras |author3=Lakshmi Iyer|title=Path-Breakers: How Does Women's Political Participation Respond to Electoral Success?|journal=Harvard Business School|date=6 November 2013|series=BGIE Unit Working Paper No. 14-035|ssrn=2350805|accessdate=}} As of 2013, it has been reported of the members of parliament 11% were women in Lok Sabha and 10.6% in Rajya Sabha.{{cite journal |last=Spary |first=Carole |year=2014 |title=Women candidates and party nomination trends in India - evidence from the 2009 general election |url=http://eprints.nottingham.ac.uk/38490/ |journal=Commonwealth & Comparative Politics |volume=52 |issue=1 |pages=109–138 |doi=10.1080/14662043.2013.867691 |s2cid=73688993 |quote=.. As mentioned earlier, only 5.5% of state legislators and 4.4% of candidates were women in our sample period, 1980-2007. Almost 70% of electoral races had no female candidates at all, and only 7% of races had more than one woman candidate. ...}}

In 2019 Indian general election, Naam Tamilar Katchi from Tamil Nadu fielded 50 per cent women candidates in the total 40 Lok Sabha seats.{{cite web|title=50:50 is right, prove Seeman's women candidates in TN Lok Sabha polls|date=28 May 2019 |url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/states/tamil-nadu/2019/may/28/5050-is-right-prove-seemans-women-candidates-in-tn-lok-sabha-polls-1982851.html|publisher=New Indian Express|accessdate=5 May 2021}} It was the first party in India offered equal number of seats to men and women.{{cite news|title=Seeman wins no seats, but his party makes a mark|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/chennai/seeman-wins-no-seats-but-his-party-makes-a-mark/articleshow/82363237.cms|newspaper=Times Of India|date=3 May 2021 |accessdate=5 May 2021}} And in the 2021 Tamil Nadu Legislative Assembly election also they followed the same 50:50 ratio by offered 117 seats to women in the total of 234 assembly constituencies.{{cite news|title=Tamil Nadu Assembly polls: NTK fields 234 candidates, 50% women|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/coimbatore/ntk-fields-234-candidates-50-women/articleshow/81400148.cms|newspaper=Times Of India|date=9 March 2021 |accessdate=5 May 2021}}

{{Copy edit section|date=May 2024}}

Annie Besant became the first female president of the Indian National Congress in 1917, followed by Sarojini Naidu, who became the first Indian woman to lead the Congress in (1925 -1926). Nellie Sengupta (1933), Indira Gandhi (1959,1978 - 83) and Sonia Gandhi (1998 - 2017, 2019 - 2022) were the other women presidents of Indian National Congress. Shashikala Kakodkar was the first woman Chief Minister of Goa. She also served as the President of Maharashtrawadi Gomantak Party. J. Jayalalithaa, former Chief Minister of Tamil Nadu, served as fifth General Secretary of the All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam (1988 - 2016). Mayawati became Chief Minister of Uttar Pradesh in 1995 and was named the political successor to Bahujan Samaj Party (BSP) founder Kanshi Ram in 2001. She has led the BSP as its president since 2003. Mamata Banerjee, the founder of the All India Trinamool Congress, has served as its Chairperson since 2001. Anupriya Patel is the founder president of Apna Dal (Soneylal) since 2016. Dr. Renuka da Silva briefly served as the president of Goa Forward Party from March 2017 to July 2017.{{Cite news |date=2017-03-21 |title=Renuka D'Silva is the new president of Goa Forward party |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/goa/renuka-dsilva-is-the-new-president-of-goa-forward-party/articleshow/57746647.cms |access-date=2024-05-01 |work=The Times of India |issn=0971-8257}}

Women's organizations in India first began to emerge in the early 1900s, and later in the 1970s after a period of limited activity from the 1950s to 1970s.{{cite journal|last=Vijayalakshmi|first=V|title=Feminist Politics in India: Women and Civil Society Activism|journal=Institute for Social and Economic Change|year=2005|series=Working Paper|url=http://www.isec.ac.in/WP%20-%20161.pdf|accessdate=24 March 2014}} One of the earliest women's organizations, Bharat Stree Mahamandal, formed in 1910 and focused on helping women escape oppression from men. Women's associations had traditionally began with the help of men giving few women access to work and education, while limiting the expansion of traditional gender roles.{{cite journal|last=Sen|first=Samita|title=Toward a Feminist Politics? The Indian Women's Movement in Historical Perspective|journal=Policy Research Report on Gender and Development|date=April 2000|series=Working Paper Series No. 9|page=14|citeseerx = 10.1.1.195.9810 }} In 1927, the All India Women's Conference (AIWC) was formed to advocate for women's education and was helpful in the passage of the Hindu Code of Bills between 1952 and 1960.{{cite web|last=Basu|first=Aparna|title=Indian Women's Movement|url=http://www.du.ac.in/fileadmin/DU/Academics/course_material/hrge_15.pdf|work=Foundation Course, Human rights, Gender and Environment|publisher=University of Delhi|accessdate=24 March 2014}} Women were also active in the freedom movement in protesting British colonial rule over Indian holding protests and public meetings in support of independence.{{Cite journal |last=Thapar |first=Suruchi |date=1993 |title=Women as Activists; Women as Symbols: A Study of the Indian Nationalist Movement |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1395197 |journal=Feminist Review |issue=44 |pages=81–96 |doi=10.2307/1395197 |issn=0141-7789}}

File:Women at farmers rally, Bhopal, India, Nov 2005.jpg

The new wave of feminism in the 1970s was in response to gender inequality issues and stagnant development in India.{{cite journal|last=Agnihotri|first=Indu|author2=Vina Mazumdar |title=Changing Terms of Political Discourse: Women's Movement in India, 1970s-1990s|journal=Economic and Political Weekly|date=22 July 1995|volume=30|issue=29|pages=1869–1878}} The Committee on the Status of Women in India released a report in 1974, and had a significant influence in the reemergence of activism towards gender equality. The report highlighted the significant differences between men and women in India, including the disparity in the sex ratio, mortality rates, employment, literacy, and wage discrimination. The report fueled the women's movement by signifying the ongoing discrimination towards women in India.{{cite journal|last=Guha|first=Phulrenu|title=Towards Equality: Report of the Committee on the Status of Women in India|journal=Government of India|date=December 1974|series=Ministry of Education and Social Welfare|url=http://pldindia.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/04/Towards-Equality-1974-Part-1.pdf|accessdate=25 March 2014|display-authors=etal}} Gender inequality has remained the focus of the women's movement with specific emphasis on issues such as the Uniform Civil Code, Women's Reservation Bill, and sexual violence against women.{{cite journal|last=Phadke|first=Shilpa|title=Women' Studies Reflects on the Women's Movement|journal=Economic and Political Weekly|date=25 October 2003|page=4567|url=https://www.academia.edu/270059|accessdate=25 March 2014}} Women's organizations both informal and formal have developed at the rural, urban, national, and state levels in India. Women's organizations in India address a variety of issues from the environment, poverty, empowerment, and violence against women.{{cite journal|last=Subramaniam|first=Mangala|title=The Indian Women's Movement|journal=Contemporary Sociology|date=November 2004|volume=33|issue=6|pages=635–639|jstor=3593826|doi=10.1177/009430610403300603|s2cid=77548925}} One of the most prominent women's organizations in India is the AIWC, which was established in 1927, focusing on empowering and educating Indian women. The AIWC has over 100,000 members and 500 branches in India, and has helped with the passage of the Sarda Act, Maternity Benefit Act, and Hindu Code Bills.{{cite book|last=O'Brien|first=Jodi|title=Encyclopedia of Gender and Society|year=2009|publisher=Sage Publications, Inc|location=Thousand Oaks, CA|isbn=9781412964517|doi=10.4135/9781412964517.n17|chapter=All India Women's Conference|url=https://scholarcommons.scu.edu/gender/32}}{{cite web|last=All India Women's Conference|title=Achievements|url=http://www.aiwc.org.in/achivements.html|accessdate=27 March 2014}}

Indian women are significantly involved at the grass roots level of activism. The Chipko movement that arose in the 1970s is one example of success among the women's movement in India, as women protested the deforestation in Uttarakhand leading to the protection of the region.{{cite journal|last=Basu|first=Amrita|title=Grass Roots Movements and the State: Reflections on Radical Change in India|journal=Theory and Society|date=September 1987|volume=16|issue=5|pages=647–674|doi=10.1007/bf00133391|s2cid=189889105}} Since the Indian independence, women's organizations have focused on issues of violence towards women. Women's movements have focused on rape, female mortality rates, female foeticide, dowry deaths, sati, and domestic abuse. Tragedies such as the Mathura rape case in 1972, the dowry death of Tarvinder Kaur in 1979, the death of Roop Kanwar by practice of sati in 1987, the gang rape of Bhanwari Devi in 1992, and the New Delhi gang rape case in 2012, have kept the movement focused on rape and given rise to many women's organizations at the local and national level.{{cite web|last=Bagri|first=Thirani|title=Where is India's Feminist Movement Headed?|url=http://india.blogs.nytimes.com/2013/03/08/where-is-indias-feminist-movement-headed/?_php=true&_type=blogs&_r=0|work=The New York Times|date=8 March 2013 |accessdate=27 March 2014}}

The level and forms of women's participation in politics is largely shaped by cultural and societal barriers in the form of violence, discrimination, illiteracy and financial challenges.

Martha Nussbaum highlighted a significant barrier to women's capability of participating in politics to be the threat of violence.{{cite journal|last=Nussbaum|first=Martha C.|title=Women's Bodies: Violence, Security, and Capabilities|journal=Journal of Human Development|date=July 2005|volume=6|issue=2|pages=173–174|doi=10.1080/14649880500120509|citeseerx=10.1.1.473.1687|s2cid=44200761}} Sexual violence in India is exacerbated by issues of education and marriage. Women are sexually abused. Child marriage, domestic violence and low literacy rates have lowered Indian women's economic opportunities and contributed to sexual violence in India.{{cite journal|last=Nussbaum|first=Martha C.|title=Sex, laws, and inequality: what India can teach the United States|journal=American Academy of Arts and Sciences|date=Winter 2002|url=http://www.amacad.org/publications/winter2002/Nussbaum.pdf|accessdate=27 March 2014}} A 2011 study found, "24% of Indian men have committed sexual violence at some point in their lives, 20% have forced their partners to have sex with them...38% of men admitting they had physically abused their partners."{{cite news|title=Indian men most sexually violent, says survey of six developing nations|url=http://infochangeindia.org/women/news/indian-men-most-sexually-violent-says-survey-of-six-developing-nations.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110603230615/http://infochangeindia.org/women/news/indian-men-most-sexually-violent-says-survey-of-six-developing-nations.html|url-status=usurped|archive-date=3 June 2011|accessdate=27 March 2014|newspaper=Infochange Women|date=March 2011}} Widespread sexual violence is attributed to the fact that violence within marriage is not against the law, and sexual violence goes largely unpunished.{{cite journal|last=Raj|first=Anita|author2=Lotus McDougal |title=Sexual violence and rape in India|journal=The Lancet|date=8 March 2014|volume=383|issue=9920|page=865|doi=10.1016/s0140-6736(14)60435-9|pmid=24607092|s2cid=205972324}} Martha C. Nussbaum states that "In the larger society, violence and the threat of violence affects many women's ability to participate actively in many forms of social and political relationship, to speak in public, to be recognized as dignified beings whose worth is equal to that of others."

Although the Constitution of India removed gender inequalities among caste and gender, discrimination continues to be a widespread barrier to women's political participation. A 2012 study of 3,000 Indian women found the barriers in participation, specifically in running for political office, in the form of illiteracy, work burdens within the household, and discriminatory attitudes towards women as leaders.{{cite journal|last=International Center for Research on Women |author2=UN Women |title=Opportunities and Challenges of Women's Political Participation in India: A Synthesis of Research Findings from Select Districts in India |year=2012 |url=http://www.icrw.org/files/publications/India%20governance%20report%20synthesis%202013.pdf |accessdate=27 March 2014 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131216110759/http://www.icrw.org/files/publications/India%20governance%20report%20synthesis%202013.pdf |archivedate=16 December 2013 }} Discriminatory attitudes manifest in the limitations presented to Indian women including low access to information and resources. Women rely on receiving information from family or village members, typically men. Women also lack leadership experience due to the fact they are burdened with household duties. The burden of household duties is a significant reason why many Indian women do not participate. Unlike men, there are fewer opportunities for women to get involved in organizations to gain leadership skills.{{cite web|last=Mohan|first=Shantha|title=Women and Political Participation in India|url=http://www.iwraw-ap.org/aboutus/pdf/FPwomen_and_pol_pax.pdf|publisher=International Women's Rights Action Watch Asia Pacific|accessdate=23 April 2014|display-authors=etal}} There is little public space for them as men have dominated the political arena for many years in India.{{cite journal|last=Chhibber|first=Pradeep|title=Why are Some Women Politically Active? The Household, Public Space, and Political Participation in India|journal=International Journal of Comparative Sociology|date=2002|volume=43|issue=409|pages=409–429|doi=10.1177/002071520204300310|s2cid=14019894}}

Discrimination is further perpetuated by class. Dalit women, of the lowest caste in India, are continually discriminated against in running for public office. The Government of India requires reservation of seats for Dalits and Scheduled Castes, but women suffer from abuse and discrimination when serving as elected officials. Dalit women experience harassment by being denied information, ignored or silenced in meetings, not getting entry in temples, and in some cases petitioned to be removed from their elected position.{{cite journal|last=Mangubhai|first=Jayshree|title=Obstacles to the Effective Political Participation of Dalit Women|journal=United Nations Second Forum on Minority Issues|date=12–13 November 2009}}{{cite web|last=Navsarjan Trust, FEDO, and International Dalit Solidarity Network|title=The Situation of Dalit Rural Women|url=http://www.ohchr.org/Documents/HRBodies/CEDAW/RuralWomen/FEDONavsarjanTrustIDS.pdf|publisher=CEDAW General Comment on Rural Women|accessdate=8 April 2014}}

India is only the largest illiterate populations. In January 2014, the United Nations reported 25.6 percent of all adults in India are illiterate.{{cite news|title=India tops in adult illiteracy: U.N. report|url=http://www.thehindu.com/features/education/issues/india-tops-in-adult-illiteracy-un-report/article5629981.ece|accessdate=23 April 2014|newspaper=The Hindu|date=29 January 2014}} Literacy among Indian women is 65.46%, which is much lower than literacy among men reported at 82.14%.{{cite web|last=Census of India|title=Literacy and Level of Education|url=http://censusindia.gov.in/Census_And_You/literacy_and_level_of_education.aspx|publisher=Government of India|accessdate=23 April 2014}} illiteracy limits the ability of women to understand the political system and issues. Problems with exploitation, such as women being left off of voters list, have been reported as illiteracy limits the ability of women to ensure their political rights are exercised.{{cite web|last=D.P.|first=D.P.|title=Impact of 73rd Amendment Act on Women's Leadership in the Punjab|url=http://www.vri-online.org.uk/ijrs/April2008/Impact%20of%2073rd%20Amendment%20Act%20India%20on%20Women.pdf|accessdate=23 April 2014|publisher=Punjab University, Patiala}} Martial concerning political participation stated, "Because literacy is connected in general with the ability to move outside the home and to stand on one's own outside of it, it is also connected to the ability of women to meet and collaborate with other women."{{cite journal|last=Nussbaum|first=Martha C.|title=Women's Education: A Global Challenge|journal=Signs|date=2004|volume=29|issue=2|pages=325–355|doi=10.1086/378571|s2cid=144593937}} Studies conducted by Niraja Jayal and Nirmala Buch found women are "persistently mocked and devalued in the panchayats if they are illiterate." Nussbaum also found literacy can play a key role in the dignification and independence of women in politics by giving them access to communications, such as memos and newspapers, they can become better informed on political issues.{{citation needed|date=March 2021}}

Financial challenges significantly affect women's political participation in India. Many women, particularly in rural areas, face difficulties due to limited financial resources, which impacts their ability to engage fully in political processes. Financial constraints can hinder women from attending Panchayat meetings or participating in political activities, as they may need to focus on earning a livelihood to support their families. Additionally, the lack of financial resources can prevent women from accessing necessary training and information related to political involvement. Studies have shown that financial instability can lead to women being less active in political roles and less able to advocate for their rights effectively. Addressing these financial barriers is crucial for enhancing women's participation and representation in local governance.{{cite thesis |title=Chapter-5 Gramin Esthaniya Savshasan me Mahila Jan Partinidhiyo Ka Shamta Sanvardhan Jaisalmer Jile Ke Sandarbh Me Anubhawatmak Adhayan|year=2022 |publisher=Shodh Ganga|last = Choudhary

| first = Renuka |hdl=10603/395261 |url=http://hdl.handle.net/10603/395261 |access-date=22 July 2024}}

To overcome issues of discrimination and violence, women's organizations have focused on the empowerment of Indian women. Empowerment is tied to the support of family and improved status within the household, which is undermined by the threat of domestic and sexual violence. Socio-economic conditions, such as poverty and illiteracy, prevent the entrance of women into running for public office, and even voting. Inability to understand the rules of Panchayat Raj undermines the self-confidence to participation in public office.{{cite web|last=Rai|first=Pragya|title=Political Representation and Empowerment: Women in Local Government Institutions in Bihar, India|url=http://www.statsvet.su.se/polopoly_fs/1.134674.1368528430!/menu/standard/file/Pragya%20Rai%20Report%20Forum.pdf|publisher=Stockholm University, Department of Political Science|accessdate=9 April 2014}} Empowerment of Indian women can also occur through "bridging gaps in education, renegotiating gender roles, the gender division of labour and addressing biased attitudes". Women can also be empowered to participate by family, and when familial support is present they are more likely to run for office.

The Government of India has addressed the issue of empowerment by consolidating all programs for women under the National Mission of Empowerment of Women (NMEW). The mission of NMEW is to "enhance economic empowerment of girls and women through skill development, micro credit, vocational training and entrepreneurship."{{cite web|last=National Mission for Empowerment of Women|title=Key Strategies|url=http://www.nmew.gov.in/index1.php?lang=1&level=0&linkid=61&lid=26<ypeid=2&domid=1|publisher=Ministry of Women and Child Development, Government of India|accessdate=23 April 2014}} In 2001, the Government of India passed the National Policy for the Empowerment of Women. The policy focuses on "the advancement, development, and empowerment of women."{{cite web|last=Government of India|title=National Policy for the Empowerment of Women|url=http://www.wcd.nic.in/empwomen.htm|accessdate=24 April 2014}} Specifically, the policy focuses on ending gender inequality and violence against women. The United Nations has also encouraged empowerment among Indian women by campaigning to end violence against women in India.{{cite web|last=United Nations in India|title=Gender Equality and Empowerment|url=http://in.one.un.org/task-teams/gender-equality-and-empowerment|publisher=United Nations|accessdate=23 April 2014}}

• Nari Shakti Vandan Adhiniyam
• Women in India
• Women in government
• Women's suffrage
• Women's Reservation Bill (2010)
• Reserved political positions in India
• United Women Front
• All India Women's Conference
• Violence against women in India
• Domestic Violence in India
• Gender discrimination in India
• Gender inequality in India

• List of female chief ministers in India
• List of female governors and lieutenant governors in India
• List of female deputy chief ministers in India

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{{Women in national government}}

{{India topics}}

Category:Women in India