Word of mouth

Storytelling often involves improvisation or embellishment. Stories or narratives have been shared in every culture as a means of entertainment, education, cultural preservation and in order to instill moral values.

The earliest forms of storytelling were thought to have been primarily oral combined with gesture storytelling for many of the ancient cultures. [http://archeology.uark.edu/rockart/index.html?pageName=Why%20did%20Native%20Americans%20make%20rock%20art? "Why did Native Americans make rock art?"]. Rock Art in Arkansas. Retrieved 9 May 2016. The Australian Aboriginal people painted symbols from stories on cave walls as a means of helping the storyteller remember the story. The story was then told using a combination of oral narrative, music, rock art, and dance. Cajete, Gregory, Donna Eder and Regina Holyan. Life Lessons through Storytelling: Children's Exploration of Ethics. Bloomington: Indiana UP, 2010, {{ISBN|0253222443}}

Traditionally, oral stories were committed to memory and then passed from generation to generation. However, in literate societies, written, televised, and internet media have largely replaced this method of communicating local, family, and cultural histories. Oral storytelling remains the dominant medium of learning in some countries with low literacy rates.

Oral tradition (sometimes referred to as "oral culture" or "oral lore") is cultural material and traditions transmitted orally from one generation to another.Vansina, Jan: "Oral Tradition as History", 1985, James Currey Publishers, {{ISBN|0-85255-007-3}}, {{ISBN|978-0-85255-007-6}}; at page 27 and 28, where Vansina defines oral tradition as "verbal messages which are reported statements from the past beyond the present generation" which "specifies that the message must be oral statements spoken sung or called out on musical instruments

only"; "There must be transmission by word of mouth over at least a generation". He points out that "Our definition is a working definition for the use of historians. Sociologists, linguists or scholars of the verbal arts propose their own, which in, e.g., sociology, stresses common knowledge. In linguistics, features that distinguish the language from common dialogue (linguists), and in the verbal arts features of form and content that define art (folklorists)".Ki-Zerbo, Joseph: "Methodology and African Prehistory", 1990, UNESCO International Scientific Committee for the Drafting of a General History of Africa; James Currey Publishers, {{ISBN|0-85255-091-X}}, 9780852550915; see Ch. 7; "Oral tradition and its methodology" at pages 54-61; at page 54: "Oral tradition may be defined as being a testimony transmitted verbally from one generation to another. Its special characteristics are that it is verbal and the manner in which it is transmitted." The messages or testimony are verbally transmitted in speech or song and may take the form, for example, of folktales, sayings, ballads, songs, or chants. In this way, it is possible for a society to transmit oral history, oral literature, oral law and other knowledges across generations without a writing system.

Sociologists emphasize a requirement that the material is held in common by a group of people, over several generations, and thus distinguish oral tradition from testimony or oral history.Henige, David. Oral, but Oral What? The Nomenclatures of Orality and Their Implications Oral Tradition, 3/1-2 (1988): 229-38. p 232; Henige cites Jan Vansina (1985). Oral tradition as history. Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin Press In a general sense, "oral tradition" refers to the transmission of cultural material through vocal utterance, and was long held to be a key descriptor of folklore (a criterion no longer rigidly held by all folklorists).Degh, Linda. American Folklore and the Mass Media. Bloomington:IUP, 1994, p. 31 As an academic discipline, it refers both to a set of objects of study and a method by which they are studiedDundes, Alan, "Editor’s Introduction" to "The Theory of Oral Composition", John Miles Foley. Bloomington, IUP, 1988, pp. ix-xii—the method may be called variously "oral traditional theory", "the theory of Oral-Formulaic Composition" and the "Parry-Lord theory" (after two of its founders). The study of oral tradition is distinct from the academic discipline of oral history,Henige, David. Oral, but Oral What? The Nomenclatures of Orality and Their Implications Oral Tradition, 3/1-2 (1988): 229-38. p 232; Henige cites Jan Vansina (1985). Oral tradition as history. Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin Press which is the recording of personal memories and histories of those who experienced historical eras or events.{{cite web|url=http://www.unc.edu/depts/wcweb/handouts/oral_history.html|title=UNC Writing Center Has Moved|website=www.unc.edu|access-date=4 April 2018}} It is also distinct from the study of orality, which can be defined as thought and its verbal expression in societies where the technologies of literacy (especially writing and print) are unfamiliar to most of the population.Ong, Walter, S. J., "Orality and Literacy: The Technologizing of the Word". London: Methuen, 1982 p 12

Oral history is the recording of personal memories and histories of those who experienced historical eras or events. Oral history is a method of historical documentation, using interviews with living survivors of the time being investigated. Oral history often touches on topics scarcely touched on by written documents, and by doing so, fills in the gaps of records that make up early historical documents. Oral history preservation is the field that deals with the care and upkeep of oral history materials, whatever format they may be in.Keakopa, M. (1998). The role of the archivist in the collection and preservation of oral traditions. S.A. Archives Journal, 40,87-93.

Verbal communication in the literal sense is oral communication with words that a person or other people speak out loud.{{Cite web |last=Kaplan |first=Zoe |date=2022-08-19 |title=What Are Verbal Communication Skills? |url=https://www.theforage.com/blog/skills/verbal-communication |access-date=2023-05-16 |website=Forage |language=en-US}}

Social media is a form of electronic communication through which users create online communities to share information, ideas, personal messages, and other content (such as videos).{{Cite web |date=2023-04-28 |title=Definition of SOCIAL MEDIA |url=https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/social+media |access-date=2023-05-16 |website=www.merriam-webster.com |language=en}} Social media involves the way individuals communicate with others online. Social media in itself is not word of mouth, but it is one way that word of mouth spreads.{{Cite web |last=Baer |first=Jay |date=2018-10-31 |title=Why Social Media and Word of Mouth Are Not the Same Thing |url=https://www.convinceandconvert.com/digital-marketing/social-media-vs-word-of-mouth/ |access-date=2023-05-16 |website=Convince & Convert |language=en-US}} In fact, half of all word of mouth takes place online. Practitioners have started using electronic word of mouth for consumer insight through text analytics, sentiment, hashtag analytics, and other machine learning tools.{{Cite journal |last1=Verma |first1=Sanjeev |last2=Yadav |first2=Neha |date=2022 |title=Past, Present, and Future of Electronic Word of Mouth (EWOM) |url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1016/j.intmar.2020.07.001 |journal=Journal of Interactive Marketing |language=en |volume=53 |pages=111–128 |doi=10.1016/j.intmar.2020.07.001|url-access=subscription }} However, researchers of the Keller Fay Group found discussions are often face-to-face and not primarily dominated by social media.{{Cite journal |last1=Keller |first1=Ed |last2=Fay |first2=Brad |date=2012-12-01 |title=Word-of-Mouth Advocacy: A New Key to Advertising Effectiveness |url=https://www.journalofadvertisingresearch.com/content/52/4/459 |journal=Journal of Advertising Research |language=en |volume=52 |issue=4 |pages=459–464 |doi=10.2501/JAR-52-4-459-464 |issn=0021-8499|url-access=subscription }} Alluding to offline word of mouth (real life conversations) being just as persuasive as online word of mouth.

Researchers argue that social media itself is not word of mouth, but rather a medium through which word of mouth spreads. Word of mouth is a story or verbal recommendation, as some researchers view social media as a mechanism. Social media is thus a big part of how word of mouth travels between people.

Long-established systems using word-of-mouth include:

• the "grapevine"
• the salon
• the "bush telegraph"

{{cite book

| last1 = Dolgin

| first1 = Alexander

| title = The Economics of Symbolic Exchange

| date = 6 October 2008

| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=NqpA7Lq7QKcC

| publisher = Springer Science & Business Media

| publication-date = 2008

| page = 228

| isbn = 9783540798828

| access-date = 2014-12-03

| quote = Word of mouth can overcome the information cascade devised by marketing specialists. This is important as objective testimony to the power of the bush telegraph.

}}

• the lecture circuit
• preaching

"Luther asserted, 'It is the manner of the New Testament and of the gospel that it must be preached and performed by word of mouth and a living voice. Christ himself has not written anything, nor has he ordered anything to be written, but rather to be preached by word of mouth.'" Quoted in:

{{cite book

| last1 = Whitford

| first1 = David M

| chapter = Preaching and Worship

| title = T&T Clark Companion to Reformation Theology

| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=wkmCBAAAQBAJ

| series = Bloomsbury Companions

| date = 25 September 2014

| publisher = Bloomsbury Publishing

| publication-date = 2014

| page = 161

| isbn = 9780567445087

| access-date = 2014-12-03

}}

{{columns-list|colwidth=30em|

• Electronic word-of-mouth
• Communication
• Klout
• Oral communication
• Oral history
• Oral tradition
• PeerIndex
• Storytelling
• Telephone, an oral communication device
• Telephone, a game
• Train of thought
• Two-step flow of communication
• Walkie Talkie, designed for walking and talking
• Word-of-mouth marketing

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Category:Interpersonal communication

Category:History of communication

Category:Promotion and marketing communications