Zinc mining

File:World- Zinc Production, 1946 - DPLA - 2f18a69219248aa357d5859b6d2cbe58.jpg

Zinc deposits have been exploited for thousands of years: the oldest known zinc mine, in Rajasthan, India, was established nearly 2000 years BP.{{Cite journal|last1=Willies|first1=Lynn|last2=Craddock|first2=P. T.|last3=Gurjar|first3=L. J.|last4=Hegde|first4=K. T. M.|date=October 1984|title=Ancient lead and zinc mining in Rajasthan, India|journal=World Archaeology|volume=16|issue=2|pages=222–233|doi=10.1080/00438243.1984.9979929|issn=0043-8243}}

Pure zinc was produced in the 9th century AD; earlier in antiquity zinc was primarily used to alloy with copper to produce brass.{{Cite journal|last1=Kharakwal|first1=J. S.|last2=Gurjar|first2=L. K.|date=2006-12-01|title=Zinc and Brass in Archaeological Perspective|journal=Ancient Asia|volume=1|pages=139|doi=10.5334/aa.06112|issn=2042-5937|doi-access=free}} This{{what|date=November 2024}} is because it is difficult to isolate zinc metal from its ore. At the temperature zinc is released from its ore it also vaporizes into a gas, and if the furnace is not airtight, the gaseous zinc reacts with the air to form zinc oxide.{{Cite journal|last=Craddock|first=P.T.|date=January 1987|title=The early history of zinc |journal=Endeavour|language=en|volume=11|issue=4|pages=183–191|doi=10.1016/0160-9327(87)90282-1}}{{Cite book|title=Metals and mines : studies in archaeometallurgy|date=2007|publisher=Archetype Publications in association with the British Museum |editor1=La Niece, Susan |editor2=Hook, Duncan R. |editor3=Craddock, Paul T. |isbn=978-1-904982-19-7|location=London|oclc=174131337}}

Metallic zinc was smelted in the 9th century BC in India, followed by China 300 years later, and in Europe by 1738 AD. The methods of smelting in China and India were most likely independently developed, while the method of smelting developed in Europe was likely derived from the Indian method.{{Cite journal|last=Craddock|first=Paul Terence|date=2009-05-01|title=The origins and inspirations of zinc smelting|journal=Journal of Materials Science|language=en|volume=44|issue=9|pages=2181–2191|doi=10.1007/s10853-008-2942-1|bibcode=2009JMatS..44.2181C|s2cid=135523239|issn=1573-4803}}

File:Method_overview.png

Zinc is mined both at the surface and at depth. Surface mining of zinc is typically used for oxide ores, while underground mining yields zinc sulfide ores.{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/technology/zinc-processing|title=Zinc processing - Ores|website=Encyclopedia Britannica|language=en|access-date=2020-02-13}} Some of the common methods of zinc mining are open pit mining, open stope, and cut and fill mining:{{Cite book|last=Grosh, Wesley A.|title=Zinc-ore mining and milling methods, Piquette Mining and Milling Co., Tennyson, Wis|date=1959|publisher=U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Bureau of Mines|isbn=9781135139209|oclc=609238014}}{{Cite book|last=Storms, Walter R.|title=Mining methods and costs at the Kearney Zinc-Lead Mine, Central Mining District Grant County, N. Mex|date=1949|publisher=U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Bureau of Mines|isbn=9781135139209|oclc=609239419}}

Open-pit mining: Surface mining involves the removal of waste rock from above an ore deposit before it can be extracted. Once the waste overburden is removed, ore and waste are then mined in parallel, primarily using track-mounted excavators and rubber-tired trucks. In smaller scale operations, front loaders may be used.{{Cite tech report|publisher=U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service |date=1995 |url=https://www.fs.fed.us/rm/pubs_int/int_gtr035.pdf |title=Anatomy of a mine from prospect to production |location=Ogden, UT|doi=10.2737/int-gtr-35|last1=U.S. Department Of Agriculture |first1=Forest Service |doi-access=free |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060211151813/https://www.fs.fed.us/rm/pubs_int/int_gtr035.pdf |archive-date=2006-02-11}}

Open Stope mining: This is a method of underground mining where ore bodies are completely removed leaving sizeable caverns (stopes) within the mine. Open stope mining leaves these caverns with no additional bracing or external support; instead the cavern walls are supported by random pillars of ore which have not been removed.

Cut and Fill stoping: A method of underground mining which removes ore from below the deposit. The stope is then filled with waste rock to replace the mined out ore to support the stope walls, and to provide an elevated floor for the miners and equipment to further extract ore from the deposit.

{{See also|List of countries by zinc production}}

Global mine production of zinc in 2019 was 12.9 million tonnes, a 0.9% increase from 2018, with the increase primarily attributed to increased output from zinc mines in Australia and South Africa.{{Cite web|publisher=International Lead and Zinc Study Group|date=19 February 2020 |title=Review of Trends in 2019 - Zinc |url=http://www.ilzsg.org/generic/pages/file.aspx?file_id=2596|location=Lisbon, Portugal}}

In 2020, production of zinc is expected to rise 3.7% to 13.99 million tonnes, with the increase due to increased production of zinc by China and India.{{Cite journal|last=International Lead and Zinc Study Group|date=October 28, 2019|title=ILZSG SESSION/FORECASTS|url=http://www.ilzsg.org/pages/document/p1/list.aspx?id=2&from=1&ff_aa_document_type=R&select=A|journal=ILZSG Publications}}

In 2019 global demand for refined zinc exceeded supply and resulted in a deficit of 0.178 million tonnes, while in 2020 there is an expected surplus of 0.192 million tonnes.

Research on the health of the benthic macroinvertebrate populations in the mining areas of southeastern Missouri, USA, have yielded a wealth of information on the effects of zinc mining on its local environment. Fish and crayfish populations in localities near mining sites have been observed to be much lower than other populations found in reference sites; and the crayfish tissues have much higher metal concentrations than their reference counterparts.{{Cite journal|last1=Allert|first1=A. L.|last2=DiStefano|first2=R. J.|last3=Fairchild|first3=J. F.|last4=Schmitt|first4=C. J.|last5=McKee|first5=M. J.|last6=Girondo|first6=J. A.|last7=Brumbaugh|first7=W. G.|last8=May|first8=T. W.|date=April 2013|title=Effects of historical lead–zinc mining on riffle-dwelling benthic fish and crayfish in the Big River of southeastern Missouri, USA|journal=Ecotoxicology|language=en|volume=22|issue=3|pages=506–521|doi=10.1007/s10646-013-1043-3|pmid=23435650|s2cid=28565656|issn=0963-9292|url=http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1879&context=usgsstaffpub}} It was also found that mussel populations near lead-zinc mining areas had reduced biomass, and were less specious{{clarify|date=November 2024}} than those found in reference sites.{{Cite journal|last1=Besser|first1=John M.|last2=Ingersoll|first2=Christopher G.|last3=Brumbaugh|first3=William G.|last4=Kemble|first4=Nile E.|last5=May|first5=Thomas W.|last6=Wang|first6=Ning|last7=MacDonald|first7=Donald D.|last8=Roberts|first8=Andrew D.|date=2015-02-10|title=Toxicity of sediments from lead-zinc mining areas to juvenile freshwater mussels (Lampsilis siliquoidea) compared to standard test organisms|journal=Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry|volume=34|issue=3|pages=626–639|doi=10.1002/etc.2849|pmid=25545632|s2cid=22828049 |issn=0730-7268}} Concentrations of metals 10-60% higher than reference have been reported in plant tissues.{{Cite journal|last1=Besser|first1=John M.|last2=Brumbaugh|first2=William G.|last3=May|first3=Thomas W.|last4=Schmitt|first4=Christopher J.|date=2007-05-08|title=Biomonitoring of Lead, Zinc, and Cadmium in Streams Draining Lead-Mining and Non-Mining Areas, Southeast Missouri, USA|journal=Environmental Monitoring and Assessment|language=en|volume=129|issue=1–3|pages=227–241|doi=10.1007/s10661-006-9356-9|pmid=16957839|s2cid=12958503|issn=0167-6369|url=https://digitalcommons.unl.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1883&context=usgsstaffpub}} Immediately downstream of mining activity, a reduction in biotic condition of macroinvertebrates by 10%-58%{{clarify|date=November 2024}}{{Fix|text=Need to explain how biotic condition has been quantified.}} have been observed, with the ecosystem having an impaired ability to support its populations when compared to other reference sites.{{Cite journal|last1=Poulton|first1=Barry C.|last2=Allert|first2=Ann L.|last3=Besser|first3=John M.|last4=Schmitt|first4=Christopher J.|last5=Brumbaugh|first5=William G.|last6=Fairchild|first6=James F.|date=April 2010|title=A macroinvertebrate assessment of Ozark streams located in lead–zinc mining areas of the Viburnum Trend in southeastern Missouri, USA|journal=Environmental Monitoring and Assessment|language=en|volume=163|issue=1–4|pages=619–641|doi=10.1007/s10661-009-0864-2|pmid=19347594|s2cid=207128684|issn=0167-6369|url=http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1570&context=usgsstaffpub}}

Benthic macro-invertebrates such as crayfish and mussels represent a pathway for biomagnification, where the concentration of noxious materials within organisms at higher trophic levels accumulates as a result of consuming contaminated prey. In addition, benthic macroinvertebrate populations are frequently used as indicators of overall ecosystem health.{{Cite journal|last1=Mullins|first1=Gary W.|last2=Lewis|first2=Stuart|date=November 1991|title=Macroinvertebrates as Indicators of Stream Health|journal=The American Biology Teacher|volume=53|issue=8|pages=462–466|doi=10.2307/4449370|jstor=4449370}}{{Cite journal|last1=Hernandez|first1=Maria Brenda M.|last2=Magbanua|first2=Francis S.|date=2016-12-01|title=Benthic Macroinvertebrate Community as an Indicator of Stream Health: The Effects of Land Use on Stream Benthic Macroinvertebrates|url=https://doaj.org/|journal=Science Diliman|language=en|volume=28|issue=2|pages=5–26|issn=0115-7809}}

Soil samples from agricultural areas near a lead-zinc mining region in Guangxi, China have shown a "serious pollution level" of zinc in paddy fields relatively close to the mining area, and a "moderate pollution level" in the aerated fields relatively further away.{{Cite journal|last1=Zhang|first1=Chaolan|last2=Li|first2=Zhongyi|last3=Yang|first3=Weiwei|last4=Pan|first4=Liping|last5=Gu|first5=Minghua|last6=Lee|first6=DoKyoung|date=June 2013|title=Assessment of Metals Pollution on Agricultural Soil Surrounding a Lead–Zinc Mining Area in the Karst Region of Guangxi, China|journal=Bulletin of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology|language=en|volume=90|issue=6|pages=736–741|doi=10.1007/s00128-013-0987-6|pmid=23553502|s2cid=13204093|issn=0007-4861}} The research also indicated that their Nemerow synthetic index assessment{{clarify|date=November 2024}} showed that the region under study is not fit for agricultural purposes. Other investigation into the effect of zinc mining on agricultural soils in the Heilongjiang Province of China has found that the soils were "moderately contaminated", and the population and diversity of the bacterial assemblages within the soils were significantly reduced, with reduced activity of soil enzymes.{{Cite journal|last1=Qu|first1=Juanjuan|last2=Ren|first2=Guangming|last3=Chen|first3=Bao|last4=Fan|first4=Jinghua|last5=E|first5=Yong|date=November 2011|title=Effects of lead and zinc mining contamination on bacterial community diversity and enzyme activities of vicinal cropland|journal=Environmental Monitoring and Assessment|language=en|volume=182|issue=1–4|pages=597–606|doi=10.1007/s10661-011-1900-6|pmid=21494836|s2cid=37742692|issn=0167-6369}} The activity of the bacteria and enzymes help plant matter to take up nutrients, decompose decaying matter, and in other ecosystem interactions. Their reduction and impaired effectiveness result in poorer agricultural productivity.

• Zinc mining in the United States

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