antisemitism in France

The beginning of Jewish presence in Roman Gaul is uncertain. The southern part of France was under the Roman Empire from 122 BCE. Jews spread out after the destruction of the Second Temple in 70 CE, and more after the Bar Kokhba revolt and the destruction of Jerusalem. Most went towards Rome, where they were offered protection by Julius Caesar, and later by Augustus; and then towards the edges of the Empire. Gaul was an exile destination for banished Roman politicians, and as some Judeans were forced out of their land, likely some of them ended up there as well.{{sfn|Benbassa|2001|p=3}}

However, it is not until the fourth century that there is reliable documentation of the presence of Jews in Gaul. Not all were from Palestine, some were converted by Jews in the diaspora. As the Roman Empire became Christianized with the recognition of Christianity in 313 and the conversion of Constantine, restrictions on Jews began and increased the pressure on emigration, especially to Gaul which was less Christianized. Numbers were small, and were mostly along the coast, such as Narbonne and Marseille, but also in the river valleys and nearby communities, and extended as far as Clermont-Ferrand and Poitiers.{{sfn|Benbassa|2001|p=4}}

Jews in Gaul had certain rights, deriving from the Constitutio Antoniniana, decreed in 212 by the Roman Emperor Caracalla to all inhabitants of the Empire, and included freedom of worship, the ability to hold public office, and serve in the army. Jews practiced every trade, and were no different than other Roman citizens, and dressed and spoke the same language as their fellow Romans. Even in the synagogue, where Hebrew was not the only language used. Relations were relatively good.{{sfn|Benbassa|2001|p=4}}

Information is sketchy, but there is evidence, some dating to the first century, of geographically widespread habitation in Metz, Poitiers, or Avignon. By the fifth century, there is evidence of settlements in Brittany, Orleans, Narbonne, and elsewhere.

File:Merovingian dynasty-1.jpg kingdoms]]

After the Fall of Rome, the Merovingians ruled France from the fifth to the eighth century, The emperors Theodosius II and Valentinian III sent a decree to Amatius, prefect of Gaul (9 July 425), that prohibited Jews and pagans from practicing law or holding public offices. This was to prevent Christians from being subject to them and possibly incited to change their faith.

Clovis I converted to Catholicism in 496, along with the majority of the population which brought pressure on Jews to convert as well. The bishops in some localities offered Jews in their purview a choice between baptism and expulsion.{{cite book |author=Toni L. Kamins |title=The Complete Jewish Guide to France |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MTicAAAAQBAJ&pg=PT30 |year=2013 |publisher=St. Martin's Publishing Group |isbn=978-1-4668-5281-5 |pages=30–31 |chapter=1 A Short History of Jewish France |oclc=865113295}}

In the sixth century, Jews were documented in Marseille, Arles, Uzès, Narbonne, Clermont-Ferrand, Orléans, Paris, and Bordeaux.{{cite encyclopedia |last=Broydé |first=Isaac Luria |author2=Executive Committee of the Editorial Board |display-authors=1 |editor1-last=Funk |editor1-first=Isaac Kaufmann |editor1-link=Isaac K. Funk |editor2-last=Singer |editor2-first=Isidore |editor2-link=Isidore Singer |editor3-last=Vizetelly |editor3-first=Frank Horace |editor3-link=Frank Horace Vizetelly |encyclopedia=The Jewish Encyclopedia |title=France |hdl=2027/mdp.39015064245445?urlappend=%3Bseq=583 |year=1906 |publisher=Funk & Wagnalls |volume=V |location=New York |oclc=61956716}}

The conversion to Christianity of the Visigoths and Franks made the condition of the Jews difficult: a succession of ecumenical councils diminished their rights until Dagobert I forced them to convert or leave France in 633.{{sfn|Benbassa|2001|p=}}{{page needed|date=July 2021}}

During the councils of Elvira (305), Council of Vannes (465), the three Councils of Orleans (533, 538, 541), and the Council of Clermont (535), the Church forbade Jews to have meals together with Christians, to have mixed marriages and proscribed the celebration of the shabbat, the aim being to limit the influence of Judaism on the population.{{cite journal |last1=Grayzel |first1=Solomon |title=The Beginnings of Exclusion |journal=The Jewish Quarterly Review |date=July 1970 |volume=61 |issue=1 |pages=15–26 |doi=10.2307/1453586 |jstor=1453586 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1453586|url-access=subscription }}

{{Further|Medieval antisemitism}}

{{See also|France in the Middle Ages}}

{{Further|History of the Jews in France#Persecutions under the Capets}}

{{Summarize section|reason=Copied from History of the Jews in France#Persecutions (987–1137) but needs cutting back. |date=July 2021}}

File:French Jews executed by burning.jpg

There were widespread persecutions of Jews in France beginning in 1007.{{cite book |last=Golb |first=Norman |title=The Jews in medieval Normandy: a social and intellectual history |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=New York |year=1998 |isbn=978-0-521-58032-8 |oclc=36461619 }} These persecutions, instigated by Robert II (972–1031), King of France (987–1031), called "the Pious", are described in a Hebrew pamphlet,Published in Berliner's Magazin iii. 46–48, Hebrew part, reproducing Parma De Rossi MS. No. 563, 23; see also Jew. Encyc. v. 447, s.v. France. which also states that the King of France conspired with his vassals to destroy all the Jews on their lands who would not accept baptism, and many were put to death or killed themselves. Robert is credited with advocating forced conversions of local Jewry, as well as mob violence against Jews who refused.{{cite book |title=The Complete Jewish Guide to France |year= 2001 |publisher=St. Martin's Griffin |author=Toni L. Kamins|isbn= 978-0312244491}} Among the dead was the learned Rabbi Senior. Robert the Pious is well known for his lack of religious toleration and for the hatred that he bore toward heretics; it was Robert who reinstated the Roman imperial custom of burning heretics at the stake.{{cite book |last=MacCulloch |first=Diarmaid |title=A history of Christianity: the first three thousand years |publisher=Penguin |location=London |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-14-195795-1 |oclc=712795767 |page=396}} In Normandy under Richard II, Duke of Normandy, Rouen Jewry suffered from persecutions that were so terrible that many women, in order to escape the fury of the mob, jumped into the river and drowned. A notable of the town, Jacob ben Jekuthiel, a Talmudic scholar, sought to intercede with Pope John XVIII to stop the persecution in Lorraine (1007).Berliner's "Magazin," iii.; "Oẓar Ṭob," pp. 46–48. Jacob undertook the journey to Rome, but was imprisoned with his wife and four sons by Duke Richard, and escaped death only by allegedly miraculous means.{{clarify|date=January 2016}} He left his eldest son, Judah, as a hostage with Richard while he with his wife and three remaining sons went to Rome. He bribed the pope with seven gold marks and two hundred pounds, who thereupon sent a special envoy to King Robert ordering him to stop the persecutions.{{cite web |url=http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/8418-jacob-ben-jekuthiel |title=Jacob Ben Jekuthiel |publisher=JewishEncyclopedia.com}}{{cite web |url=http://www.encyclopedia.com/article-1G2-2587517096/rouen.html |title=Rouen |publisher=encyclopedia.com}}

File:FrenchJews1.jpg

If Adhémar of Chabannes, who wrote in 1030, is to be believed (he had a reputation as a fabricator), the anti-Jewish feelings arose in 1010 after Western Jews addressed a letter to their Eastern coreligionists warning them of a military movement against the Saracens. According to Adémar, Christians urged by Pope Sergius IVMonumenta Germaniae Historica, Scriptores, iv. 137. were shocked by the destruction of the Church of the Holy Sepulcher in Jerusalem by the Muslims in 1009. After the destruction, European reaction to the rumor of the letter was of shock and dismay, Cluniac monk Rodulfus Glaber blamed the Jews for the destruction. In that year Alduin, Bishop of Limoges (bishop 990–1012), offered the Jews of his diocese the choice between baptism and exile. For a month theologians held disputations with the Jews, but without much success, for only three or four of Jews abjured their faith; others killed themselves; and the rest either fled or were expelled from Limoges.Chronicles of Adhémar of Chabannes ed. Bouquet, x. 152; Chronicles of William Godellus ib. 262, according to whom the event occurred in 1007 or 1008.{{Cite book|title=A concise history of the Catholic Church|last=Bokenkotter|first=Thomas S.|publisher=Doubleday|year=2004|isbn=0385505841|edition=Rev. and expanded|location=New York|page=[https://archive.org/details/concisehistoryof00boke/page/155 155]|oclc=50242976|url=https://archive.org/details/concisehistoryof00boke/page/155}} Similar expulsions took place in other French towns. By 1030, Rodulfus Glaber knew more concerning this story.Chronicles of Adhémar of Chabannes ed. Bouquet, x. 34 According to his 1030 explanation, Jews of Orléans had sent to the East through a beggar a letter that provoked the order for the destruction of the Church of the Holy Sepulcher. Glaber adds that, on the discovery of the crime, the expulsion of the Jews was everywhere decreed. Some were driven out of the cities, others were put to death, while some killed themselves; only a few remained in the "Roman world". Count Paul Riant (1836–1888) says that this whole story of the relations between the Jews and the Mohammedans is only one of those popular legends with which the chronicles of the time abound.{{cite book |title=Inventaire Critique des Lettres Historiques des Croisades – 786–1100 |first=Paul Edouard Didier |last=Riant |author-link=Paul Riant |location=Paris |year=1880 |page=38 |url=https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=mdp.39015030695400&view=1up&seq=60 }}

Another violent commotion arose at about 1065. At this date Pope Alexander II wrote to Béranger, Viscount of Narbonne and to Guifred, bishop of the city, praising them for having prevented the massacre of the Jews in their district, and reminding them that God does not approve of the shedding of blood. In 1065 also, Alexander admonished Landulf VI of Benevento "that the conversion of Jews is not to be obtained by force."Simonsohn, pp. 35–37. Also in the same year, Alexander called for a crusade against the Moors in Spain.{{Cite book|title=El Camino : Walking to Santiago de Compostela|last=Hoinacki|first=Lee|publisher=Pennsylvania State University Press|year=1996|isbn=0271016124|location=University Park|page=[https://archive.org/details/elcaminowalkingt00hoin/page/101 101]|oclc=33665024|url=https://archive.org/details/elcaminowalkingt00hoin/page/101}} These Crusaders killed without mercy all the Jews whom they met on their route.

{{Main|Crusades}}

{{Further|Rhineland massacres}}

File:Massacre of Jews.jpg during the First Crusade, by Auguste Migette]]

The Jews of France suffered during the First Crusade (1096), when the crusaders are stated, for example, to have shut up the Jews of Rouen in a church and to have murdered them without distinction of age or sex, sparing only those who accepted baptism.{{cite book |last1=Cantor |first1=Norman Frank |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pyjWCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA127 |title=Church, Kingship, and Lay Investiture in England, 1089–1135 |year= 2015 |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=978-1-4008-7699-0 |page=127 |language=en}} According to a Hebrew document, the Jews throughout France were at that time in great fear and wrote to their brothers in the Rhine countries making known to them their terror and asking them to fast and pray. In the Rhineland, thousands of Jews were killed by the crusaders (see German Crusade, 1096).{{cite journal |last1=Nirenberg |first1=David |title=The Rhineland Massacres of Jews in the First Crusade: Memories Medieval and Modern |journal=Medieval Concepts of the Past |date=31 January 2002 |pages=279–310 |doi=10.1017/CBO9781139052320.014 |publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=9780521780667 }}

The Rhineland massacres, also known as the German Crusade of 1096,{{cite book|title=The Routledge Atlas of Jewish History |author=Gilbert, M. |year=2010 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=9780415558105 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vWLDnKGSJnQC |access-date=5 October 2014}} were a series of mass murders of Jews perpetrated by mobs of German Christians of the People's Crusade in the year 1096, or 4856 according to the Jewish calendar. These massacres are seen as the first in a sequence of antisemitic events in Europe which culminated in the Holocaust.{{cite book|author=David Nirenberg|editor=Gerd Althoff| others=Johannes Fried|title=Medieval Concepts of the Past: Ritual, Memory, Historiography|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MxS6-pQZzGsC&pg=PA279 |year=2002 |publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-78066-7|page=279}}

Prominent leaders of crusaders involved in the massacres included Peter the Hermit and especially Count Emicho.{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sndVK_foqI4C&pg=PA55|title=European Jewry and the First Crusade|last=Chazan|first=Robert|publisher=U. of California Press|year=1996|isbn=9780520917767|pages=55–60, 127}} As part of this persecution, the destruction of Jewish communities in Speyer, Worms and Mainz was noted as the "Hurban Shum" (Destruction of Shum).Shum Hebrew: שו"ם were the letters of the three towns as pronounced at the time in old French: Shaperra, Wermieza, and Magenzza.

File:Execution of Hebrews by Pagans.jpg

In the County of Toulouse Jews were received on good terms until the Albigensian Crusade. Toleration and favour shown to the Jews was one of the main complaints of the Roman Church against the Counts of Toulouse. Following the Crusaders' successful wars against Raymond VI and Raymond VII, the Counts were required to discriminate against Jews like other Christian rulers. In 1209, stripped to the waist and barefoot, Raymond VI was obliged to swear that he would no longer allow Jews to hold public office. In 1229 his son Raymond VII underwent a similar ceremony where he was obliged to prohibit the public employment of Jews, this time at Notre Dame in Paris. Explicit provisions on the subject were included in the Treaty of Meaux (1229). By the next generation a new, zealously Catholic, the ruler was arresting and imprisoning Jews for no crime, raiding their houses, seizing their cash, and removing their religious books. They were then released only if they paid a new "tax". A historian has argued that organized and official persecution of the Jews became a normal feature of life in southern France only after the Albigensian Crusade because it was only then that the Church became powerful enough to insist that measures of discrimination be applied.Michael Costen, The Cathars and the Albigensian Crusade, p. 38

{{clear}}

{{Further|History of the Jews in France#Expulsions and Returns}}

{{See also|Expulsions and exoduses of Jews}}

File:1182 french expulsion of jews.jpg.]]

The practice of expelling the Jews accompanied by confiscation of their property, followed by temporary readmissions for ransom, was used during the Middle Ages to enrich the crown, including expulsions:{{cite book|author=Mark Avrum Ehrlich|title=Encyclopedia of the Jewish Diaspora: Origins, Experiences, and Culture|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NoPZu79hqaEC&pg=PA99|access-date=27 July 2021|year=2009|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-1-85109-873-6|page=99}}

• from Paris by Philip Augustus in 1182{{citation needed|reason=Except for Vienne, this section was entirely uncited at 'Expulsions and exoduses of Jews' from where it was copied.|date=July 2021}}
• from Vienne by order of Pope Innocent III in 1253{{citation needed|date=September 2021}}
• from Brittany in 1240{{sfn|Lindemann|Levy|2010|p=75}}
• from Poitou in 1249{{sfn|Lindemann|Levy|2010|p=75}}
• from France by Louis IX in 1254
• by Edward I of England from Gascony in 1288{{sfn|Lindemann|Levy|2010|p=75}}
• from Anjou and Maine in 1289{{sfn|Lindemann|Levy|2010|p=75}}
• from Nevers in 1294{{sfn|Lindemann|Levy|2010|p=75}}
• from Niort in 1296{{sfn|Lindemann|Levy|2010|p=75}}
• from Royal lands by Philip IV in 1306{{sfn|Lindemann|Levy|2010|p=75}}
• by Charles IV in 1322
• by Charles V in 1359
• by Charles VI in 1394.

In 1182, Philip Augustus expelled the Jews from France, and recalled them again in 1198. There were various restrictions on interest on capital or debt in the 13th century under Louis VIII (1223–26) and Louis IX (1226–70). The Medieval Inquisition, which had been instituted in order to suppress Catharism, finally occupied itself with the Jews of Southern France who converted to Christianity. In 1306 the treasury was nearly empty, and the king, as he was about to do the following year in the case of the Templars, condemned the Jews to banishment, and took forcible possession of their property, real and personal. Their houses, lands, and movable goods were sold at auction; and for the king were reserved any treasures found buried in the dwellings that had belonged to the Jews. In 1306, Louis X (1314–16) recalled the Jews. In an edict dated 28 July 1315, he permitted them to return for a period of twelve years, authorizing them to establish themselves in the cities in which they had lived before their banishment.

On 17 September 1394, Charles VI suddenly published an ordinance in which he declared that thenceforth no Jew should dwell in his domains ("Ordonnances", vii. 675). According to the Religieux de St. Denis, the king signed this decree at the insistence of the queen ("Chron. de Charles VI." ii. 119).History of the reign of Charles VI, titled Chronique de Religieux de Saint-Denys, contenant le regne de Charles VI de 1380 a 1422, encompasses the king's full reign in six volumes. Originally written in Latin, the work was translated to French in six volumes by L. Bellaguet between 1839 and 1852. The decree was not immediately enforced, a respite being granted to the Jews in order that they might sell their property and pay their debts. Those indebted to them were enjoined to redeem their obligations within a set time; otherwise, their pledges held in pawns were to be sold by the Jews. The provost was to escort the Jews to the frontier of the kingdom. Subsequently, the king released the Christians from their debts.{{Cite journal|last1=Barkey|first1=Karen|last2=Katznelson|first2=Ira|year=2011|title=States, regimes, and decisions: why Jews were expelled from Medieval England and France|url=http://www.academia.edu/download/36241148/States__regimes__and_decisions-_why_Jews_were_expelled_from_Medieval_England_and_France.pdf|journal=Theory and Society|volume=40|issue=5|pages=475–503|issn=0304-2421|doi=10.1007/s11186-011-9150-8|s2cid=143634044}}{{dead link|date=July 2022|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}

{{Main|Persecution of Jews during the Black Death}}

{{Further|Medieval antisemitism#The Black Death}}

File:Doutielt1.jpg

The Black Death plague devastated Europe in the mid-14th century, annihilating more than half of the population, with Jews being made scapegoats. Rumors spread that they caused the disease by deliberately poisoning wells. Hundreds of Jewish communities were destroyed by violence, in particular in the Iberian peninsula and in the Germanic Empire. In Provence, forty Jews were burnt in Toulon as early as April 1348.{{sfn|Stéphane|Gualde|2006|p=47}} "Never mind that Jews were not immune from the ravages of the plague; they were tortured until they confessed to crimes that they could not possibly have committed.

"The large and significant Jewish communities in such cities as Nuremberg, Frankfurt, and Mainz were wiped out at this time."(1406)Johannes, Fried (2015) p. 421. The Middle Ages. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. In one such case, a man named Agimet was ... coerced to say that Rabbi Peyret of Chambéry (near Geneva) had ordered him to poison the wells in Venice, Toulouse, and elsewhere. In the aftermath of Agimet's "confession", the Jews of Strasbourg were burned alive on 14 February 1349.Hertzberg, Arthur and Hirt-Manheimer, Aron. Jews: The Essence and Character of a People, HarperSanFrancisco, 1998, p. 84. {{ISBN|0-06-063834-6}}Johannes, Fried (2015) p. 420. The Middle Ages. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press.

Although Pope Clement VI tried to protect them by the 6 July 1348 papal bull and another 1348 bull, several months later, 900 Jews were burnt in Strasbourg, where the plague hadn't yet affected the city.{{sfn|Stéphane|Gualde|2006|p=47}} Clement VI condemned the violence and said those who blamed the plague on the Jews (among whom were the flagellants) had been "seduced by that liar, the Devil."{{cite book |last=Lindsey |first=Hal |title=The Road to Holocaust |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=r2k0EAAAQBAJ&pg=PA22 |year=1990 |publisher=Random House Publishing Group |isbn=978-0-553-34899-6 |pages=22–}}

The first massacre directly related to the plague took place in April 1348 in Toulon, where the Jewish quarter was sacked, and forty Jews were murdered in their homes. Shortly afterward, violence broke out in Barcelona and other Catalan cities.{{sfn|Foa|2000|p=13}}

In 1349, massacres and persecutions spread across Europe, including the Erfurt massacre, the Basel massacre, massacres in Aragon, and Flanders.{{sfn|Kantor|2005|p=203|ps= 1349 The Black Death massacres swept across Europe. ... The Jews were savagely attacked and massacred, by sometimes hysterical mobs{{snd}}normal social order had ...}}{{sfn|Marshall|2006|p=376|ps= The period of the Black Death saw the massacre of Jews across Germany, and in Aragon, and Flanders}} 2,000 Jews were burnt alive on 14 February 1349 in the "Valentine's Day" Strasbourg massacre, where the plague had not yet affected the city. While the ashes smouldered, Christian residents of Strasbourg sifted through and collected the valuable possessions of Jews not burnt by the fires.{{sfn|Gottfried|2010|p=74}}{{sfn|Stéphane|Gualde|2006|p=47}}

Many hundreds of Jewish communities were destroyed in this period. Within the 510 Jewish communities destroyed in this period, some members killed themselves to avoid persecution.{{sfn|Durant|1953|pp=730–731}}

In the spring of 1349, the Jewish community in Frankfurt am Main was annihilated. This was followed by the destruction of Jewish communities in Mainz and Cologne. The 3,000-strong Jewish population of Mainz initially defended themselves and managed to hold off the Christian attackers. But the Christians managed to overwhelm the Jewish ghetto in the end and killed all of its Jews.{{sfn|Gottfried|2010|p=74}}

At Speyer, Jewish corpses were disposed of in wine casks and cast into the Rhine. By the close of 1349, the worst of the pogroms had ended in Rhineland. But around this time the massacres of Jews started rising near the Hansa townships of the Baltic Coast and in Eastern Europe. By 1351 there had been 350 incidents of anti-Jewish pogroms and 60 major and 150 minor Jewish communities had been exterminated.{{citation needed|date=July 2021}}

{{Main|Medieval antisemitism#Medieval antisemitic art}}

{{Further|Jewish deicide|Antisemitic canards}}

File:Karel Ooms - The jews in the Middle Ages.jpg (1890)]]

During the Middle Ages, much art was created by Christians that depicted Jews in a fictional or stereotypical manner; the great majority of narrative religious Medieval art depicted events from the Bible, where the majority of persons shown had been Jewish. But the extent to which this was emphasized in their depictions varied greatly. Some of this art was based on preconceived notions about how Jews dressed or looked, as well as the "sinning" acts that Christians believed that they committed.{{cite book |last1=Strickland |first1=Debra Higgs |title=Saracens, Demons, and Jews: making monsters in Medieval art |year=2003 |publisher=Princeton University Press |location=Princeton, N.J.}} One iconic symbol of this era was Ecclesia and Synagoga, a pair of statues personifying the Christian Church (Ecclesia) next to her predecessor, the Nation of Israel (synagoga). The latter was often displayed blindfolded and carrying a tablet of the law slipping from her hand, sometimes also bearing a broken staff, whereas Ecclesia was standing upright with a crowned head, a chalice, and a staff adorned with the cross.{{cite web |last=Kamins |first=Toni |title=From Notre Dame to Prague, Europe's anti-Semitism is literally carved in stone |date=20 March 2015 |url=https://www.jta.org/2015/03/20/archive/from-notre-dame-to-prague-europes-anti-semitism-is-literally-carved-in-stone |url-status=live |website=Jewish Telegraphic Agency |location=New York|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190416193423/https://www.jta.org/2015/03/20/archive/from-notre-dame-to-prague-europes-anti-semitism-is-literally-carved-in-stone |archive-date=16 April 2019 }} This was often as a result of a misinterpretation of the Christian doctrine of supersessionism involving a replacement of the "old" covenant given to Moses by the "new" covenant of Christ, which medieval Christians took to mean that the Jews had fallen out of God's favor.{{citation needed|date=July 2021}}

Medieval Christians believed in the idea of Jewish "stubbornness" because Jews did not accept that Christ was the Messiah. This idea extended further in that the Jews dismissed Christ so far that they decided to murder him by nailing him to a cross. Jews were, therefore, marked as the "enemies of Christians" and "Christ-killers." This notion was one of the main inspirations behind antisemitic portrayals of Jews in Christian art.{{citation needed|date=July 2021}}

According to medieval Christians, anyone who did not agree with their ideas of faith, including the Jewish people, was automatically assumed to be friendly with the devil and simultaneously condemned to hell. In many portrayals of Christian art, Jews are made out to resemble demons or interact with the devil. This is meant to not only portray Jews as ugly, evil, and grotesque but also to establish that demons and Jews are innately similar. Jews would also be placed in front of hell to further showcase that they are damned.

By the twelfth century, the concept of a "stereotypical Jew" was widely known. A stereotypical Jew was usually male with a heavy beard, a hat, and a large, crooked nose which were significant identifiers for someone Jewish. These notions were portrayed in medieval art, which ultimately ensured that a Jew could easily be identified. The idea behind a stereotypical Jew was primarily to portray them as ugly creature who is to be avoided and feared.

{{Main|Early modern France|Ancien regime}}

{{Further|Louis XIV}}

File:Louis XIV of France.jpg (reigned: 1643–1715)}}]]

The Ancien Regime was the political and social system of the Kingdom of France from the Late Middle Ages (circa 15th century) until the French Revolution of 1789, during the period known as Early Modern France and epitomized by the 72-year reign (1643–1715) of King Louis XIV. In the run-up to the Revolution, France had a Jewish population of around 40,000 to 50,000, chiefly centered in Bordeaux, Metz and a few other cities. They had very limited rights and opportunities, apart from the moneylending business, but their status was legal.{{Sfn|Aston|2000|pages=72–89}}

Jewish residents of France lived on the periphery of the country: in the southwest, southeast, and northeast under conditions inherited from the Middle Ages, with only around 400 in Paris. Their main concern was simply to maintain their right of residency, which involved significant financial payments to various rulers, which was complex due to the division of authority between king and local seigneurs. In return, Jews were allowed to live in specific places, and occupy certain limited occupations, especially moneylending, and secondhand sales. Jews were a tolerated alien group that formed their own self-governing community, parallel to the general social order, but not quite part of it, and governed by their own halakha law. Although suffering social antipathy, they were able to practice their religion; in some areas only fairly recently. Of the various Jewish communities, the Marranos of the southwest, principally from Bordeaux, were the most commercially valued by the Crown, and were the most socially acculturated to general French society. Expelled from France in the 14th century, their privileges were once again recognized by Louis XV in 1723, primarily due to their economic utility as bankers and brokers.{{sfn|Hyman|Sorkin|1998|pp=1–3}}

{{Main|Revolutionary France}}

File:Royal decree proclaiming the emancipation of the Jews, France, 1791 - Musée d'art et d'histoire du Judaïsme.jpg]]

Before the French Revolution, the hostility of Voltaire made him place in his Philosophical Dictionary an exhortation addressed to the Jews: "you are calculating animals; try to be thinking animals".{{sfn|Voltaire|1829|p=493}} In the 1770s, the majority of contributors to the Encyclopédie and other thought leaders (excepting rare philosemites like Irish philosopher John Toland in 1714, or Protestant pastor Jacques Basnage de Beauval in 1716{{sfn|Birnbaum|2017|loc=Introduction}}), who were busy defending the civil rights of the black inhabitants of the Antilles, the Hurons of North America, or other tribes, forgot to plead for the emancipation of their immediate neighbors, the Jews of France, and instead covered them with accusations and mockery.{{sfn|Birnbaum|2017|loc=Introduction}}

Nevertheless, Diderot, in one of the longest articles of The Encyclopedia, the article {{lang|fr|Juif}} ("Jew"), does "justice to the importance of the destiny of the Jewish people, and the richness of their ideas".{{sfn|Morin|1989|pp=71–122}}

Severe measures were taken against the Jews of Alsace (about 20,000 people) through the letters patent of 10 July 1784: limitation of the number of Jews and their marriages, economic restrictions, and other measures.{{sfn|Feuerwerker|1965|p=}}

On the other hand, the edict of January 1784 by Louis XVI exempted the other Jews "from the duties of Leibzoll, {{clarify span|traverse, custom|reason=unclear in the original French|date=July 2021}} and all other duties of this nature for their person only" which previously equated them with animals.{{sfn|Sagnac|1899|p=209}}

In 1787, the Royal Society of Arts and Sciences of Metz launched a contest: "Are there ways to make the Jews happier and more useful in France?"{{efn|See various essays in {{sfnlink|Birnbaum|2017}}}}

{{Main|French Revolution|Jewish emancipation}}

{{expand section |small=no |find=French Revolution |find2=Jews |date=November 2021}}

Jews gained equal rights to French citizenship when the National Assembly voted it in on 27 September 1791. An amendment was added later, removing certain privileges granting some autonomous rule to Jewish communities; these were removed, in order that Jews as individuals have the same rights as any other French citizen, neither more nor less.{{cite web |author1=Jack R. Censer |author2=Lynn Hunt |title=Admission of Jews to Rights of Citizenship |date= 27 September 1791|website=Liberty, Equality, Fraternity: Exploring the French Revolution |url=https://revolution.chnm.org/d/287 |publisher=Roy Rosenzweig Center for History and New Media |access-date=7 November 2021}}, as compiled from: {{cite book |last=Hunt |first=Lynn |title=The French Revolution and Human Rights: A Brief Documentary History |location=Boston |publisher=Bedford/St. Martin's |series=The Bedford series in history and culture |year=1996 |isbn=9780312108021 |oclc=243853552 |pages=99–101 }}

{{Main|Napoleon and the Jews|French First Empire}}

{{expand section|small=no|find=Jews|find2=Napoleon OR "First Empire"|date=November 2021}}

In the early 19th century, through his conquests in Europe, Napoleon Bonaparte spread the modernist ideas of revolutionary France: equality of citizens and the rule of law. Napoleon's personal attitude towards the Jews has been interpreted in various ways by different historians, as at various times he made statements both in support of and in opposition to the Jewish people. Orthodox Rabbi Berel Wein claimed that Napoleon was interested primarily in seeing the Jews assimilate, rather than prosper as a distinct community: "Napoleon's outward tolerance and fairness toward Jews was actually based upon his grand plan to have them disappear entirely by means of total assimilation, intermarriage, and conversion."{{cite book |last=Wein |first=Berel |title=Triumph of Survival: The Story of the Jews in the Modern Era, 1650–1990 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_AyIjwEACAAJ |series=Jewish history, a trilogy, 3 |year=1990 |publisher=Shaar Press |location=Brooklyn, N.Y. |isbn=978-1-4226-1514-0 |page=71 |oclc=933777867}}

In one 1822 communication, Napoleon expressed his support of emancipation based on his wish to "leave off usury" and "make them become good citizens",{{cite web |url= https://archive.org/stream/napoleoninexile01omegoog#page/n212/mode/2up|title= Napoleon in Exile |author= Barry Edward O'Meara |year= 1822 |access-date=12 December 2012}} whereas in 1808, he had expressed a conflicting view to his brother Jérome Napoleon, saying, "I have undertaken to reform the Jews, but I have not endeavoured to draw more of them into my realm. Far from that, I have avoided doing anything which could show any esteem for the most despicable of mankind."{{cite web |url= https://archive.org/stream/newlettersnapol02napogoog#page/n99/mode/2up |title= New letters of Napoleon I |year= 1898 |access-date=15 December 2012}}

{{main article|Antisemitism in the French Third Republic}}

{{Further|Edouard Drumont}}

{{Further ill|Antisemitic publications under the French Third Republic|fr|Antisémitisme sous la Troisième République#Les publications antisémites}}

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Three antisemitic publications were formed in the 1882–1885 period, but did not last long: L'Anti-Juif, L'Anti-Sémitique, and Le Péril sociale.{{sfn|Benbassa|2001|p=209}}

Edouard Drumont published his 1200-page antisemitic tract La France juive ("Jewish France") in 1886.{{sfn|Benbassa|2001|p=209}} A best-seller of its time, it was immensely popular{{sfn|Poliakov|1981|p=}}{{page needed|date=July 2021}} and went through 140 printings in the first two years after initial publication. The book was so popular, it spawned its own literary genre, which saw the production in 1887 of Jewish Russia by Calixte de Wolski and Jewish Algeria by Georges Meynié, Jewish Austria by François Trocase in 1900, and Jewish England by Doedalus in 1913.{{sfn|Poliakov|1981|p=}}{{page needed|date=July 2021}} Drumont's book was reprinted in 1938, 1986, and 2012; and in digital version in 2018.

Inspired by the success of the book, Drumont and {{ill|Jacques de Biez|fr|v=sup}} founded the Antisemitic League of France ({{lang|fr|Ligue antisémitique de France}}) in 1889. It was active in the Dreyfus Affair.{{sfn|Benbassa|2001|p=209}} Jules Guérin was an active member. The League organized demonstrations and riots, a tactic later copied by other far-right organizations.{{citation needed|date=July 2021}} Guerin edited the anti-Dreyfusard weekly newspaper L'Antijuif as the official organ of the Antisemitic League from 1898 to 1899.{{cite book |first=George R. |last=Whyte |title=The Dreyfus Affair: A Chronological History |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0_rMCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA215 |year= 2005 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-0-230-58450-1 |page=215}}

File:L'Action française - 5 juin 1936.jpg.]]

The {{ill|International Review of Secret Societies|fr|Revue internationale des sociétés secrètes|v=sup}}, directed at first by Ernest Jouin and later by Canon Schaefer, leader of the {{ill|Free-Catholic League|fr|Ligue Franc-Catholique|v=sup}}, went from 200 subscribers in 1912 to 2000 in 1932.{{sfn|Schor|2005|pp=33–34}} The Catholic journalist Léon de Poncins, a follower of conspiracy theories and a contributor to many newspapers (including Le Figaro, directed by François Coty, or L'Ami du Peuple, subtitled "Weekly magazine of {{not a typo|raci|alist|reason='racique' in the original}} action against occult forces"{{efn|Weekly magazine of racialist action against occult forces: in French, {{lang|fr|Hebdomadaire d'action racique[sic] contre les forces occultes}}. Not to be confused with the 1789 newspaper of the same name.}} participated in it,{{sfn|Schor|2005|pp=33–34}} as did the occultist Pierre Virion, who founded an association after the war with General Weygand,{{sfn|Coston|1979|p=730}} the Vichy Minister of National Defense, before enforcing racist laws in North Africa.{{sfn|Schor|2005|pp=33–34}}

Le Grand Occident, run by the anti-Dreyfusards {{ill|Lucien Pemjean|fr|v=sup}}, {{ill|Jean Drault|fr|v=sup}} and {{ill|Albert Monniot|fr|v=sup}}, printed 6,000 copies in 1934. Le Réveil du peuple, organ of the Front Franc ('The French Front') of Jean Boissel, to which {{ill|Jean Drault|fr|v=sup}} and Urbain Gohier collaborated, distributed 3,000 copies in 1939.{{sfn|Schor|2005|pp=33–34}} Having ceased publication in 1924, La Libre Parole started up again in 1928–1929, without commercial success, then in 1930 by Henry Coston (alias Georges Virebeau), who directed it until the war. Many famous antisemites wrote for the paper, including Jacques Ploncard, {{ill|Jean Drault|fr|v=sup}}, Henri-Robert Petit, {{ill|Albert Monniot|fr|v=sup}}, Mathieu Degeilh, Louis Tournayre and Jacques Ditte. The monthly magazine of the same had a circulation of 2000 subscribers.{{sfn|Schor|2005|pp=33–34}}

Other reviews were more fleeting, such as La France Réelle, close to L'Action francaise; the pro-fascist L'Insurgé, or L'Ordre National, close to La Cagoule, an anti-communist and antisemitic terrorist group financed by Eugène Schueller, founder of L'Oréal. The latter published articles by Hubert Bourgin and Jacques Dumas.{{sfn|Schor|2005|pp=33–34}}

{{Main|Panama Canal Scandal}}

{{More citations needed section|find=Panama Canal Scandal |find2=antisemitism|date=July 2021}}

File:Panama scandal.jpg

The Panama Canal Scandal was a corruption affair that broke out in the French Third Republic in 1892, linked to a French company's failed attempt at building a canal through Panama. Close to half a billion francs were lost. Members of the French government took bribes to keep quiet about the Panama Canal Company's financial troubles in what is regarded as the largest monetary corruption scandal of the 19th century.{{Cite web|url=http://www.ak190x.de/Bauwerke/panamaen.htm|title=panama|website=www.ak190x.de}}

File:Le scandale de Panama - caricature antisémite de Gyp.jpg of Cornelius Herz, protagonist of Panama scandale]]

Hannah Arendt argues that the affair had an immense importance in the development of French antisemitism, due to the involvement of two Jews of German origin, Baron Jacques de Reinach and Cornelius Herz.{{cite book|author1=Anna Yeatman|author2=Charles Barbour|author3=Phillip Hansen|author4=Magdalena Zolkos|title=Action and Appearance: Ethics and the Politics of Writing in Hannah Arendt|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nRrK1Rzb13AC&pg=PA175|access-date=3 August 2021|year=2011|publisher=A&C Black|isbn=978-1-4411-0173-0|page=175}} Although they were not among the bribed Parliament members or on the company's board, according to Arendt they were in charge of distributing the bribe money, Reinach among the right wing of the bourgeois parties, Herz among the anti-clerical radicals. Reinach was a secret financial advisor to the government and handled its relations with the Panama Company. Herz was Reinach's contact in the radical wing, but Herz's double-dealing blackmail ultimately drove Reinach to suicide.

However, before his death Reinach gave a list of the suborned members of Parliament to La Libre Parole, Edouard Drumont's antisemitic daily, in exchange for the paper's covering up Reinach's own role. Overnight, the story transformed La Libre Parole from an obscure sheet into one of the most influential papers in the country. The list of culprits was published morning by morning in small installments, so that hundreds of politicians had to live on tenterhooks for months. In Arendt's view, the scandal showed that the middlemen between the business sector and the state were almost exclusively Jews, thus helping to pave the way for the Dreyfus Affair.{{Cite book |last=Arendt |first=Hannah |title=The Origins of Totalitarianism |publisher=Harcourt Brace Jovanovich |isbn=0-15-670153-7 |oclc=760643287 |date=21 March 1973 |pages=95–99}}

File:Degradation alfred dreyfus.jpg]]

{{Main|Dreyfus Affair}}

{{Further|History of the Jews in France#Dreyfus affair}}

The Dreyfus affair was a political scandal that divided the Third French Republic from 1894 until its resolution in 1906. "L'Affaire", as it is known in French, has come to symbolize modern injustice in the Francophone world,Guy Canivet, first President of the Supreme Court, Justice from the Dreyfus Affair, p. 15. and it remains one of the most notable examples of a complex miscarriage of justice and antisemitism. The role played by the press and public opinion proved influential in the conflict.

The scandal began in December 1894 when Captain Alfred Dreyfus of Alsatian Jewish descent was convicted of treason. He was sentenced to life imprisonment for allegedly communicating French military secrets to the Germans, and was imprisoned in Devil's Island in French Guiana, where he spent nearly five years.

File:Libre Parole illustrée (1895-04-13).jpg, 1895]]

Antisemitism was a prominent factor throughout the affair. Existing prior to the Dreyfus affair, it had expressed itself during the boulangisme affair and the Panama Canal scandal but was limited to an intellectual elite. The Dreyfus Affair spread hatred of Jews through all strata of society, a movement that certainly began with the success of Jewish France by Édouard Drumont in 1886.{{cite journal |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/24261978 |jstor=24261978 |title=Édouard Drumont et l'antisémitisme en France avant l'affaire Dreyfus |last1=Winock |first1=Michel |journal=Esprit |year=1971 |volume=403 |issue=5 |pages=1085–1106 }} It was then greatly amplified by various legal episodes and press campaigns for nearly fifteen years. Antisemitism was thenceforth official and was evident in numerous settings including the working classes.{{cite book |first=Vincent |last=Duclert |title=L'affaire Dreyfus |trans-title=The Dreyfus Affair |year=2018 |page=95 |publisher=La Découverte |language=fr |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NVrhvgEACAAJ |isbn=9782348040856 }} Candidates for the legislative elections took advantage of antisemitism as a watchword in parliamentary elections. This antisemitism was reinforced by the crisis of the separation of church and state in 1905, which probably led to its height in France. Antisemitic actions were permitted on the advent of the Vichy regime, which allowed free and unrestrained expression of racial hatred.{{citation needed|date=July 2021}}

{{Annotated image

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Antisemitic riots predated the Dreyfus Affair, and were almost a tradition in the East, where "the Alsatian people observed upon the outbreak of any revolution in France".{{cite periodical |last=Sjzakowski |first=Zosa |title=French Jews during the Revolution of 1830 and the July Monarchy |magazine=Historia Judaica |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZhZ7QwAACAAJ |volume=22 |year=1961 |oclc=460467731 |pages=116–120}} as quoted in {{sfnlink|Wilson|2007|p=540}} But the antisemitic riots that broke out in 1898 during the Dreyfus Affair were much more widespread. There were three waves of violence during January and February in 55 localities: the first ending the week of 23 January; the second wave in the week following; and the third wave from 23–28 February; these waves and other incidents totaled 69 riots or disturbances across the country.{{sfn|Tombs|2014|p=475}} Additionally, riots took place in French Algeria from 18–25 January. Demonstrators at these disturbances threw stones, chanted slogans, attacked Jewish property and sometimes Jewish people, and resisted police efforts to stop them. Mayors called for calm, and troops including cavalry were called in an attempt to quell the disturbances.{{cite book |editor-last=Strauss |editor-first=Herbert A. |title=Hostages of Modernization: Germany, Great Britain, France |last=Wilson |first=Stephen |chapter=Antisemitism in France at the Time of the Dreyfus Affair |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=D8dtAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA541 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=D8dtAAAAMAAJ |series=Liverpool scholarship online. |year=2007 |publisher=Littman library of Jewish civilization |location=Oxford |isbn=978-1-8003-4099-2 |oclc=1253400456 |orig-year=1st pub. Rutherford: 1982}}

File:L Agitation-Antisemite.jpg, Paris (1898)]]

Emile Zola's famous account J'Accuse appeared in L'Aurore on 13 January 1898, and most histories suggest that the riots were spontaneous reactions to its publication, and the subsequent Zola trial, with reports that "tumultuous demonstrations broke out nearly every day". Prefects or police in various towns noted demonstrations in their localities, and associated them with "the campaign undertaken in favor of ex-Captain Dreyfus", or with the "intervention by M. Zola", or the Zola trial itself, which "seems to have aroused the antisemitic demonstrations". In Paris, demonstrations around the Zola trial were frequent and sometimes violent. Martin du Gard reported that "Individuals with Jewish features were grabbed, surrounded, and roughed up by delirious youths who danced round them, brandishing flaming torches, made from rolled-up copies of L'Aurore.

However the fervid reaction to the Affair and especially the Zola trial was only partly spontaneous. In a dozen cities including Nantes, Lille, and Le Havre, antisemitic posters appeared in the streets, and riots followed soon after. At Saint-Etienne, posters read, "Imitate your brothers of Paris, Lyon, Marseille, Nantes, Toulouse... join with them in demonstrating against the underhand attacks being made on the Nation." In Caen, Marseille, and other cities, riots followed antisemitic speeches or meetings, such as the meeting organized by the Comité de Défense Religieuse et Sociale in Caen.

{{clear}}

{{Main|Popular Front (France)}}

{{Main|Vichy France|Vichy anti-Jewish legislation}}

{{Further|Collaboration with Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy}}

{{See also|Pope Pius XII and the Holocaust|Catholic Church and Nazi Germany}}

During World War II, the Vichy government collaborated with Nazi Germany to arrest and deport a large number of both French Jews and foreign Jewish refugees to concentration camps. By the war's end, 25% of the Jewish population of France had perished in the Holocaust.

{{Main|Aryanization#France}}

{{See also|Mission Mattéoli}}

{{Wikisource|fr|Loi du 2 juin 1941 portant statut des Juifs}}

Aryanization was the forced expulsion of Jews from business life in Nazi Germany, Axis-aligned states, and their occupied territories. It entailed the transfer of Jewish property into "Aryan" hands. The process started in 1933 in Nazi Germany with transfers of Jewish property and ended with the Holocaust.{{cite book |last1=Bopf |first1=Britta |title='Arisierung' in Köln: Die wirtschaftliche Existenzvernichtung der Juden 1933–1945 |year=2004 |publisher=Emons Verlag Köln |location=Cologne |isbn=389705311X |url=https://www.emons-verlag.de/programm/arisierung-in-koeln |access-date=11 July 2021 |archive-date=1 December 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171201232842/https://www.emons-verlag.de/programm/arisierung-in-koeln |url-status=dead }}{{cite web |author=Shoah Resource Center |title=Aryanization |url=http://www.yadvashem.org/odot_pdf/Microsoft%20Word%20-%205775.pdf |website=Yad Vashem |access-date=10 July 2021}}

Two phases have generally been identified: a first phase in which the theft from Jewish victims was concealed under a veneer of legality, and a second phase, in which property was more openly confiscated. In both cases, Aryanization corresponded to Nazi policy and was defined, supported, and enforced by Germany's legal and financial bureaucracy.{{cite web |title=Confiscation of Jewish Property in Europe, 1933–1945 New Sources and Perspectives Symposium Proceedings |url=https://www.ushmm.org/m/pdfs/Publication_OP_2003-01.pdf |publisher=United States Holocaust Memorial Museum Center For Advanced Holocaust Studies |access-date=10 July 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171202061909/https://www.ushmm.org/m/pdfs/Publication_OP_2003-01.pdf |archive-date=2 December 2017 |date=2003 |quote=Particularly impressive and equally disturbing is the robbers' effort to ensure that property confiscation was carried out by 'legal' means through a vast array of institutions and organizations set up for this purpose. The immensely bureaucratic nature of the confiscation process emerges from the vast archival trail that has survived. Arguments that no one knew about the Jews' fate become untenable once it is clear how many people were involved in processing their property. 'Legal' measures often masked theft, but blatant robbery and extortion through intimidation and physical assault were also commonplace.}}{{cite news |language=de |last1=Döblin |first1=Alfred |title=Plünderung jüdischen Eigentums Billigende Inkaufnahme 'Wie Deutsche ihre jüdischen Mitbürger verwerteten': Die Enteignung der Juden ist gut dokumentiert. Wolfgang Dreßen hat die Akten gesichtet. |trans-title=Looting of Jewish Property Tacit Acceptance of 'How Germans Exploited Their Jewish Fellow Citizens': The Expropriation of the Jews is well documented. Wolfgang Dressen has sifted through the files. |date=28 November 2010 |url=http://www.taz.de/!5131483/ |newspaper=Die Tageszeitung: Taz |access-date=10 July 2021}} Between $230 and $320 billion (in 2005 [US] dollars) was stolen from Jews across Europe,{{cite book |last1=Bazyler |first1=Michael J. |title=Holocaust Justice: The Battle for Restitution in America's Courts |year=2005 |publisher=NYU Press |isbn=978-0-8147-2938-0 |page=xi |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4Buws_VZIS8C&q=billion}} with hundreds of thousands of businesses Aryanized.

File:Affiche 18-10-1940.jpg

The term is also used by historians to refer to the spoliation of French Jews, carried out jointly and concurrently by the German occupier and the Vichy regime. It followed the law of 22 July 1941 of the "French State", which itself followed the relentless Aryanization by the Germans in the fall of 1940 in the occupied zone. Long neglected, the spoliation of Jewish property has become a highly developed field of research since the 1990s.

The dispossession of Jews was from the outset included in the mission statement of the Commissariat-General for Jewish Affairs, created on 29 March 1941 and directed first by Xavier Vallat and then by Louis Darquier de Pellepoix. From the summer of 1940, various German departments were also actively engaged in stealing Jewish property. Ambassador Otto Abetz took advantage of the 1940 mass exodus to southern France to steal the art collections of absent Jewish owners. At the end of 1941, the Germans imposed an exorbitant fine of one billion francs on the French Jewish community, to be paid among other things upon the sale of Jewish property, and managed by the Caisse des dépôts et consignations.

Historian Henry Rousso estimated the number of Aryanized companies at 10,000.{{cite book |language=fr |first=Henry |last=Rousso |title=Vichy, l'événement, la mémoire, l'histoire |trans-title=Vichy, the event, the memory, the history |publisher=Gallimard |series=Folio/Histoire, 102 |location=Paris |year=2001 |pages=148 sq |isbn=978-2-07-041749-0 |oclc=472849444}} There were 50,000 appointments administrators of Jewish property during the Occupation. By 1940, 50% of the Jewish community was deprived of their normal livelihood according to Vichy laws prohibiting them from many occupations as well as by German ordinances.Figures given by Olivier Wieviorka ("La vie politique sous Vichy", in La République recommencée [The Republic Redux], dir. S. Berstein)

{{Main|Le Juif et la France}}

Le Juif et la France (The Jews and France) was an antisemitic propaganda exhibition that took place in Paris from 5 September 1941 to 15 January 1942{{cite book |last=Lackerstein |first=Debbie |title=National Regeneration in Vichy France: Ideas and Policies, 1930–1944 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NsMFDAAAQBAJ&pg=PT263 |access-date=31 March 2017 |year=2016 |publisher=Routledge |orig-year=1st pub. Ashgate: 2012 |location=New York |isbn=978-1-315-59745-4|page=263 |oclc=953054560 |doi=10.4324/9781315597454 |quote=The IEQJ organised the exhibition Le Juif et la France (5 September 1941 to 11 January 1942). The official attendance figure was given as 1 million but it was probably no more than 500,000–700,000 and public opinion reacted against this form of Nazi propaganda.}} during the German occupation of France. A film version of the exhibition came out in French cinemas in October 1941.{{cite book |last=Judaken |first=Jonathan |title=Jean-Paul Sartre and the Jewish Question: Anti-antisemitism and the Politics of the French Intellectual |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=R_om6jVeaiAC&pg=PA79 |access-date=31 March 2017 |year=2006 |publisher=U of Nebraska Press |location=Lincoln and London |isbn=978-0-8032-2612-8 |pages=79–80 |oclc=474199495}}

It was organized and financed by the propaganda arm of the German military administration in France via the Institut d'étude des questions juives (IEQJ) (Institute for the Study of Jewish Questions) under regulation by the Gestapo and attracted around half a million visitors. This exhibition was based on the work of Professor George Montandon at the School of Anthropology in Paris, author of the book Comment reconnaître le Juif? (How to recognize a Jew?) published in November 1940. It had pretensions of being "scientific".

It was opened by Carltheo Zeitschel and Theodor Dannecker on 5 September 1941{{cite book |language=fr |last=Thalmann |first=Rita |title=La mise au pas: idéologie et stratégie sécuritaire dans la France occupée |trans-title=Keeping in Line: Ideology and Security Strategy in Occupied France |publisher=Fayard |location=Paris |year=1991 |series=Pour une histoire du XXe siècle |isbn=9782213026237 |oclc=243706428 }}{{page needed |date=May 2018}}{{cite book |last1=Hirschfeld |first1=Gerhard |last2=Marsh |first2=Patrick |title=Collaboration in France: politics and culture during the Nazi occupation, 1940–44 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GBZnAAAAMAAJ |access-date=2 May 2018 |year=1989 |publisher=Berg |location=New York |isbn=978-0-85496-237-2 |page=87 |oclc=62372520 |type=Conference publication |ref={{harvid|Hirschfeld|1989}} }} at the Palais Berlitz.{{cite book |author=Centre de documentation juive contemporaine |author-link=Centre de documentation juive contemporaine |title=Inventaires des archives |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DI5AAQAAIAAJ |access-date=2 May 2018 |volume=3 |year=1974 |publisher=Editions du Centre |location=Paris |page=155 |oclc=3531615}}

File:Le statut des Juifs est promulgué - Le Matin.jpg on 19 October 1940 announcing the passage of the Jewish laws.]]

{{Main|Vichy anti-Jewish legislation}}

{{Further|Law on the status of Jews|Révolution nationale}}

Anti-Jewish laws were enacted by the Vichy government in 1940 and 1941 affecting metropolitan France and its overseas territories during World War II. These laws were, in fact, decrees by the head of state Marshal Philippe Pétain, since Parliament was no longer in office as of 11 July 1940. The motivation for the legislation was spontaneous and was not mandated by Germany.{{sfn|Fresco|2021|pp=20–21}}{{sfn|Rayski|2005|p=12}}

In July 1940, Vichy set up a special commission charged with reviewing naturalizations granted since 1927 reform of the nationality law.{{Cite journal|last=Zalc|first=Claire|date=16 November 2020|title=Discretionary Power in the Hands of an Authoritarian State: A Study of Denaturalizations under the Vichy Regime (1940–1944)|url=https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/10.1086/711477|journal=The Journal of Modern History|volume=92|issue=4|pages=817–858|doi=10.1086/711477|s2cid=226968304|issn=0022-2801}} Between June 1940 and August 1944, 15,000 persons, mostly Jews, were denaturalized.François Masure, "État et identité nationale. Un rapport ambigu à propos des naturalisés" [The State, and national Identity. An ambiguous relationship about naturalized citizens], in Journal des anthropologues, hors-série 2007, pp. 39–49 [48] {{in lang|fr}} This bureaucratic decision was instrumental in their subsequent internment in the green ticket roundup.{{citation needed|date=May 2020}}

File:Statut des Juifs - page 1.jpg]]

Pétain personally made the 3 October 1940 law even more aggressively antisemitic than it initially was, as can be seen by annotations made on the draft in his own hand.{{cite magazine|url=http://www.lepoint.fr/petain-a-durci-le-texte-sur-les-juifs-selon-un-document-inedit-03-10-2010-1244328_19.php|title=Pétain a durci le texte sur Les Juifs, Selon un document inédit|magazine=Le Point|date=3 October 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130516064826/http://www.lepoint.fr/petain-a-durci-le-texte-sur-les-juifs-selon-un-document-inedit-03-10-2010-1244328_19.php |archive-date=16 May 2013}} The law "embraced the definition of a Jew established in the Nuremberg Laws",{{sfn|Yahil|1990|p=173}} deprived the Jews of their civil rights, and fired them from many jobs. The law also forbade Jews from working in certain professions (teachers, journalists, lawyers, etc.) while the law of 4 October 1940 provided authority for the incarceration of foreign Jews in internment camps in southern France such as Gurs.

The statutes were aimed at depriving Jews of the right to hold public office, designating them as a lower class, and depriving them of citizenship.{{sfn|Epstein|1942|p=xxxv}}{{sfn|Klarsfeld|1983|p=xiii}}{{sfn|Joly|2008|pp=25–40}} Many Jews were subsequently rounded up at Drancy internment camp before being deported for extermination in Nazi concentration camps.

After the liberation of Paris when the Provisional government was in control under Charles de Gaulle, these laws were declared null and void on 9 August 1944.{{cite web |url=http://www.legifrance.gouv.fr/affichTexte.do?cidTexte=LEGITEXT000006071212&dateTexte=20090620 |title=Ordonnance du 9 août 1944 relative au rétablissement de la légalité républicaine sur le territoire continental – Version consolidée au 10 août 1944 |trans-title=Law of 9 August 1944 Concerning the reestablishment of the legally constituted Republic on the mainland – consolidated version of 10 August 1944 |date=9 August 1944 |website=gouv.fr |publisher=Legifrance |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090716040542/http://www.legifrance.gouv.fr/affichTexte.do?cidTexte=LEGITEXT000006071212&dateTexte=20090620 |archive-date=16 July 2009 |access-date=21 October 2015}}

File:Bundesarchiv Bild 183-N0619-506, Paris, Jüdische Frauen mit Stern.jpgs before the mass arrests]]

{{Main|The Holocaust in France}}

{{See also|Vichy Holocaust collaboration timeline|Timeline of deportations of French Jews to death camps}}

{{Further ill|Deportation convoys|fr|Convois de la déportation des Juifs de France}}

Between 1940 and 1944 Jews in occupied France, the zone libre, and in Vichy-controlled French North Africa as well as Romani people were persecuted, rounded up in raids, and deported to Nazi death camps. The persecution began in 1940, and culminated in deportations of Jews from France to Nazi concentration camps in Nazi Germany and Nazi-occupied Poland. The deportations started in 1942 and lasted until July 1944. Of the 340,000 Jews living in metropolitan/continental France in 1940, more than 75,000 were deported to death camps, where about 72,500 were murdered. The government of Vichy France and the French police organized and implemented the roundups of Jews.{{cite book |last1=Marrus |first1=Michael Robert |last2=Paxton |first2=Robert O. |title=Vichy France and the Jews |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Q7ORlIpHKLEC&pg=PA243 |year=1995 |publisher=Stanford University Press |isbn=978-0-8047-2499-9 |oclc=836801478 |orig-year=1st pub. Basic Books (1981) |pages=xv, 243–245}}

French police carried out numerous roundups of Jews during World War II, including the Green ticket roundup in 1941,{{harvnb|Diamant|1977|p=22}}, as quoted in {{harvnb|Zuccotti|1999|pp=146–147}}{{harvnb|Diamant|1977}}, as quoted in {{harvnb|Rosenberg|2018|p=297}} the massive Vélodrome d'Hiver round-up in 1942 in which over 13,000 Jews were arrested,{{cite web |url=http://www.aidh.org/Racisme/shoah/rafle/espoir01.pdf |work=AIDH.org |title=Pourquoi le rafle n'a pas ateint son objectif |page=52 |access-date=31 December 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080703235953/http://www.aidh.org/Racisme/shoah/rafle/espoir01.pdf |archive-date=3 July 2008 |url-status=usurped }}{{cite web|title=The Vel' d'Hiv Roundup|url=http://www.yadvashem.org/yv/en/holocaust/france/vel_dhiv_roundup.asp|work=The Holocaust in France|publisher=Yad Vashem|access-date=22 April 2014|archive-date=27 April 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140427052957/http://www.yadvashem.org/yv/en/holocaust/france/vel_dhiv_roundup.asp|url-status=dead}} and the roundup in the Old Port of Marseille in 1943.Maurice Rajsfus, La Police de Vichy. Les Forces de l'ordre françaises au service de la Gestapo, 1940/1944, {{ill|Le Cherche midi éditeur|fr|Le Cherche midi}}, 1995. Chapter XIV, La Bataille de Marseille, pp. 209–217. {{in lang|fr}} Almost all of those arrested were deported to Auschwitz or other death camps.

{{Main|Green ticket roundup}}

File:Bundesarchiv Bild 183-S69238, Frankreich, Internierungslager Pithiviers.jpg by French gendarmes]]

The green ticket roundup took place on 14 May 1941 during the Nazi occupation of France. The mass arrest started a day after French Police delivered a green card ({{Langx|fr|billet vert}}) to 6694 foreign Jews living in Paris, instructing them to report for a "status check".{{sfn|Laub|2010|p=217}}

Over half reported as instructed, most of them Polish and Czech. They were arrested and deported to one of two transit camps in France. Most of them were interned for a year before getting deported to Auschwitz and murdered.

The Green ticket roundup was the first mass round-up of Jewish people by the Vichy Regime.

{{main|Vel' d'Hiv Roundup}}

File:Bundesarchiv Bild 183-B10919, Frankreich, Internierungslager Drancy.jpg guarding Jews held at the Drancy internment camp]]

In July 1942 the French police organized the Vel' d'Hiv Roundup (Rafle du Vel' d'Hiv) under orders of René Bousquet and his second in Paris, Jean Leguay, with co-operation from authorities of the SNCF, the state railway company. The police arrested 13,152 Jews, including 4,051 children{{snd}}which the Gestapo had not asked for{{snd}}and 5,082 women, on 16 and 17 July and imprisoned them in the Vélodrome d'Hiver. They were led to Drancy internment camp and subsequently crammed into box cars and shipped by rail to Auschwitz extermination camp. Most of the victims died en route due to a lack of food or water. Those who survived were murdered in the gas chambers. This action alone represented more than a quarter of the 42,000 French Jews sent to concentration camps in 1942, of whom only 811 would survive the war. Although the Nazis had directed the action, French police authorities vigorously participated without resisting.{{cite book |language=fr |last=Einaudi |first=Jean-Luc |title=Les silences de la police : 16 juillet 1942–17 octobre 1961 |publisher=L'Esprit frappeur |location=Paris |year=2001 |isbn=978-2-84405-173-8 |page=17}}

{{Main|1941 Paris synagogue attacks}}

On the night of 2–3 October 1941, six synagogues in Paris were attacked and damaged by explosive devices placed by their doors.{{cite book|author1=Kevin Passmore|author2=Chris Millington|title=Political Violence and Democracy in Western Europe, 1918–1940|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=v5hMCgAAQBAJ&pg=PT195|year=2015|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan UK|isbn=978-1-137-51595-7|page=195 |quote=On 2–3 October Deloncle and his men bombed seven synagogues with explosives supplied by the Germans – using terrorism once again to send another message to France, this one tied to their vehement antisemitism.}}

Helmut Knochen, Chief Commandant of the Sicherheitspolizei (Nazi Occupying Security Services){{cite web |author= |title=La Police de sécurité allemande et ses auxiliaires en Europe de l'ouest occupée (1940–1945) |trans-title=The German Security Police and its auxiliaries in occupied Western Europe |url=http://www.ciera.fr/de/node/2047 |website=Ciera |date=7 November 2012}} ordered the attacks on the Paris synagogues.{{citation needed|date=July 2021}} Members of the Milice placed the bombs.{{citation needed|date=July 2021}} The Revolutionary Social Movement (MSR), a Far-right political party was also implicated in the attacks.{{Cite web |title=Paris Promeneurs – La synagogue de la rue Pavée |url=http://www.paris-promeneurs.com/Architecture-moderne/La-synagogue-de-la-rue-Pavee |access-date=29 October 2020 |website=www.paris-promeneurs.com|date=12 August 2015 }}

According to the Vichy correspondent of the Swiss newspaper Feuille d'Avis de Neuchâtel et du Vignoble neuchâtelois, on Saturday, 4 October 1941:{{blockquote|On the night of Thursday and Friday in Paris between 1 am and 5 am, attacks took place against seven synagogues. The Synagogue de la rue de Tournelle{{sic}}, Synagogue de la rue Montespan{{sic}}, Synagogue de la rue Copernic, Synagogue de Notre-Dame de Lazaret{{sic}}, Synagogue de Notre-Dame des victoires and a sixth located on a road in which we don't yet know the name were attacked. The damage is considerable, as just the walls remain. The bomb at the Synagogue de la rue Pavée, near City Hall, was removed in time. Two people were injured. Admiral Dard, Prefect of Police, arrived on the scene and is leading the investigation. The attacks took places the day after the Day of Atonement.{{cite web |url=https://doc.rero.ch/record/56043/files/1941-10-04.pdf |title=Le terrorisme en France occupée. Attentats contre les synagogues de Paris. Des explosifs ont détruit ainsi sept des lieux de culte Israélite les plus connus de la capitale |work=Feuille d'Avis de Neuchâtel et du Vignoble neuchâtelois |date=4 October 1941 |page=1 |access-date=25 April 2023 }}}}

The perpetrators were identified but not arrested.{{citation needed|date=July 2021}}

{{Further|Art theft and looting during World War II}}

Nazi Germany plundered cultural property in Germany and from all the territories they occupied, targeting Jewish property in particular. Several organizations were created expressly for the purpose of looting books, paintings, and other cultural artefacts.{{Cite web|title=Nazi Looting and Plunder|url=https://www.holocaust.com.au/the-facts/the-outbreak-of-world-war-ii-and-the-war-against-the-jews/nazi-looting-and-plunder/|access-date=12 December 2020|website=The Holocaust|language=en}}

In 1949, a spate of antisemitic attacks targeted Jewish shops and cafes in Paris. Following initial attacks, suspects used camouflaged crates of goods containing explosives.[https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/262162177 "Camouflaged Explosive Attacks by French Fascists on Jewish Shops"]. The Australian Jewish News. Fri 28 Jan 1949. p. 10. Accessed 24 January 2025.

{{Main|Algerian War|History of the Jews in Algeria}}

File:AlgerianJew.jpg

There is evidence of Jewish settlements in Algeria since at least the Roman period (Mauretania Caesariensis).Karen B. Stern, Inscribing devotion and death: archaeological evidence for Jewish populations of North Africa, Brill, 2008, p. 88 In the 7th century, Jewish settlements in North Africa were reinforced by Jewish immigrants that came to North Africa after fleeing from the persecutions of the Visigothic king Sisebut{{cite web|url=http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=1221&letter=A |title=Algeria |publisher=JewishEncyclopedia.com |access-date=10 June 2012}} and his successors. They escaped to the Maghreb and settled in the Byzantine Empire. Later many Sephardic Jews were forced to take refuge in Algeria from the persecutions in Spain in 1391 and the Spanish Inquisition in 1492.{{cite web|url=http://www.sephardicstudies.org/decree.html |title=The Edict of Expulsion of the Jews – 1492 Spain |publisher=Sephardicstudies.org |access-date=10 June 2012}} They thronged to the ports of North Africa, and mingled with native Jewish people. In the 16th century there were large Jewish communities in places such as Oran, Bejaïa and Algiers. By 1830, the Algerian Jewish population numbered 15,000, mostly congregated in the coastal area, with about 6,500 \in Algiers, where they made up a fifth of the population.{{Cite book | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=A9UUAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA166 | title=Les juifs dans l'histoire de France: Premier colloque internationale de Haïfa| isbn=978-9004060272| last1=Yardeni| first1=Myriam| year=1980| publisher=Brill}}

The French government granted Jews, who by then numbered some 33,000,{{sfn|Hyman|Sorkin|1998|p=83}} French citizenship in 1870 under the Crémieux Decree{{cite book |first=Patrick |last=Weil |url=https://archive.org/details/howtobefrenchnat0000weil/page/128 |title=How to Be French: Nationality in the Making since 1789 |publisher=Duke University Press |year=2008 |pages=128, 253 }} The decision to extend citizenship to Algerian Jews was a result of pressures from prominent members of the liberal, intellectual French Jewish community, which considered the North African Jews to be "backward" and wanted to bring them into modernity.{{citation needed|date=July 2021}}

Within a generation, despite initial resistance, most Algerian Jews came to speak French rather than Arabic or Ladino, and they embraced many aspects of French culture. In embracing "Frenchness," the Algerian Jews joined the colonizers, although they were still considered "other" to the French. Although some took on more typically European occupations, "the majority of Jews were poor artisans and shopkeepers catering to a Muslim clientele."Friedman, Elizabeth. Colonialism & After. South Hadley, Massachusetts: Bergen, 1988 Moreover, conflicts between Sephardic Jewish religious law and French law produced contention within the community. They resisted changes related to domestic issues, such as marriage.{{cite web |url=https://cjs.ucsc.edu/2010/11/23/joshua-schreier/ |publisher=University of California Santa Cruz |date=13 January 2011 |access-date=25 April 2023 |title=Arabs of the Jewish Faith: The Civilizing Mission in Colonial Algeria |first=Joshua |last=Schreier }}

French antisemitism set down strong roots among the expatriate French community in Algeria, where every municipal council was controlled by antisemites, and newspapers were rife with xenophobic attacks on the local Jewish communities.{{cite book |first=Samuel |last=Kalman |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Sv6gAMf61NcC&pg=PA216 |title=The Extreme Right in Interwar France: The Faisceau and the Croix de Feu |publisher=Ashgate Publishing |year=2008 |pages=210ff |isbn=9780754662402 }} In Algiers when Émile Zola was brought to trial for his defense in an 1898 open letter, J'Accuse...!, of Alfred Dreyfus, over 158 Jewish-owned shops were looted and burned and two Jews were killed, while the army stood by and refused to intervene.{{sfn|Hyman|Sorkin|1998|p=105}}

A Vichy law of 7 October 1940 (pub. 8 October in the JO) abrogated the Cremieux decree and denaturalized the Jewish population of Algeria.{{sfn|Benbassa|2001|p=168}}

The Jewish community in Algeria had always been in a fragile position. After World War II, the Algerian Jewish community formed a number of organizations to support and safeguard religious institutions. The fate of the community was determined by the Algerian nationalist struggle for independence. Already in 1956, the Algerian National Liberation Front had appealed to "Algerians of Jewish origin" to choose Algerian nationality. Fears increased in 1958 when the FLN kidnapped and killed two officials of the Jewish Agency, and in 1960 with desecrations of the Great Synagogue of Algiers and the Jewish cemetery in Oran, and others were killed by the FLN.{{sfn|VJL|2021}}

File:Mosquée Abdallah Ibn Salam (ancienne Synagogue d'Oran) en 2011.JPG

Most Algerian Jews in 1961 still hoped for a solution of partition or dual nationality that would permit a resolution of the conflict, and groups such as the Comité Juif Algérien d'Etudes Sociales attempted to straddle the question of identity. Fears increased with the increasing terrorist activity by the OAS (Organisation armée secrète) and FLN, and emigration rose rapidly in mid-1962 with 70,000 leaving for France and 5,000 opting for Israel. The French government treated Jews and non-Jewish immigrants equally, and 32,000 Jews settled in the Paris area, with many others heading to Strasbourg which already had an established community. Estimates are that 80% of Algeria's Jewish community settled in France.{{sfn|VJL|2021}}

For those Jews still present after Algerian independence in 1962, the situation remained tolerable for a few years, with the minister of culture addressing the congregation on Yom Kippur. But the situation worsened rapidly with the accession to power of Houari Boumédienne in 1965, with the imposition of heavy taxes and a rise in discrimation, including lack of protection from the courts, and attacks from the press in 1967, cemeteries decayed, synagogues were defaced. By 1969 there were fewer than one thousand Jews left, aging or unwilling to leave their homes. By the 1990s, one synagogue was left; the rest had been converted to mosques, and around fifty Jews remained.{{sfn|VJL|2021}}

File:Union libérale israélite de France, 24 rue Copernic, Paris 16.jpg

{{Main|1980 Paris synagogue bombing}}

On 3 October 1980, the rue Copernic synagogue in Paris, France, was bombed in a terrorist attack. The attack killed four and wounded 46 people. The bombing took place in the evening near the beginning of Shabbat, during the Jewish holiday of Sim'hat Torah. It was the first deadly attack against Jewish people in France since the end of the Second World War.{{cite news|title=Jewish Targets: Recent Attacks: Chronology|agency=AP|work=New York Times|date=7 September 1986|id={{ProQuest|426275757}}}} The Federation of National and European Action (FANE) claimed responsibility,{{Cite news |url=https://www.lemonde.fr/archives/article/1981/10/22/des-precedents-nombreux_2709388_1819218.html |title=Des Précédents Nombreux |newspaper=Le Monde |date=22 October 1981 |access-date=25 April 2023 }} but the police investigation later concluded that Palestinian nationalists were likely responsible.{{Cite book|first1=Barry|last1=Rubin|first2=Judith Colp|last2=Rubin|title=Chronologies of Modern Terrorism|year=2015|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ynNsBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA195|publisher=Routledge|page=195|isbn=9781317474654}}{{Cite news|title=Terrorist Incidents against Jewish Communities and Israeli Citizens Abroad, 1968–2003|url=https://www.ict.org.il/Article/893/Terrorist-Incidents-against-Jewish-Communities-and-Israeli-Citizens-Abroad-1968-2003#gsc.tab=0|publisher=International Institute for Counter-Terrorism|date=20 December 2003|access-date=8 July 2021|archive-date=26 March 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210326041448/https://www.ict.org.il/Article/893/Terrorist-Incidents-against-Jewish-Communities-and-Israeli-Citizens-Abroad-1968-2003#gsc.tab=0|url-status=dead}}

{{Main|Goldenberg restaurant bombing}}

On 9 August 1982 the Abu Nidal Organization carried out a bombing and shooting attack on a Jewish restaurant in Paris's Marais district. Two assailants threw a grenade into the dining room, then rushed in and fired machine guns.{{cite news|last1=Bisserbe|first1=Noemie|title=Jordan Arrests Suspect in 1982 Attack on Jewish Restaurant in Paris|url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/jordan-arrests-suspect-in-1982-attack-on-jewish-restaurant-in-paris-1434566976|accessdate=17 June 2015|newspaper=Wall Street Journal|date=17 June 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180617115551/https://www.wsj.com/articles/jordan-arrests-suspect-in-1982-attack-on-jewish-restaurant-in-paris-1434566976|archive-date=17 June 2018|url-status=live}} They killed six people, including two Americans{{cite news |last1=Vinocur |first1=John |title=P.L.O. Foes Linked to Attack in Paris |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1982/08/11/world/plo-foes-linked-to-attack-in-paris.html |work=The New York Times |date=11 August 1982 |accessdate=14 November 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160307071547/http://www.nytimes.com/1982/08/11/world/plo-foes-linked-to-attack-in-paris.html |archive-date=7 March 2016 |url-status=live}} and injured 22 others. Business Week later said it was "the heaviest toll suffered by Jews in France since World War II."{{cite web |url=http://www.ejpress.org/article/news/france/5194 |title=Paris symbol of Jewish life to disappear |work=European Jewish Press |date=16 January 2006 |accessdate=19 March 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170815175341/http://www.ejpress.org/article/news/france/5194 |archive-date=15 August 2017 |url-status=dead }} The restaurant closed in 2006 and former owner Jo Goldenberg died in 2014.{{cite news |title=Owner of famous Paris Jewish restaurant dies |url=http://www.jpost.com/Jewish-World/Jewish-Features/Owner-of-famous-Paris-Jewish-restaurant-dies-351950 |accessdate=27 February 2017 |newspaper=Jerusalem Post |date=12 May 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180120035339/http://www.jpost.com/Jewish-World/Jewish-Features/Owner-of-famous-Paris-Jewish-restaurant-dies-351950 |archive-date=20 January 2018 |url-status=live}}

Although the Abu Nidal Organization had long been suspected,{{cite book |title=Middle East conflicts |publisher=Interlink Books |author=Massoulié, François |year=2003 |page=98 |isbn=1566562376 }}{{cite book |title=The deadly sin of terrorism: its effect on democracy and civil liberty in six countries |publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group |author=Charters, David |year=1994 |page=108 |isbn=0313289646}} suspects from the group were only definitively identified 32 years after the attacks, in evidence given by two former Abu Nidal members granted anonymity by French judges.{{cite journal |last1=Samuel |first1=Henry |title=Suspected mastermind of 1982 Paris Jewish restaurant attack 'bailed in Jordan' |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/europe/france/11681450/Suspected-mastermind-of-1982-Paris-Jewish-restaurant-attack-held-in-Jordan.html |accessdate=15 November 2015 |journal=The Telegraph |date=17 June 2005 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151117152626/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/europe/france/11681450/Suspected-mastermind-of-1982-Paris-Jewish-restaurant-attack-held-in-Jordan.html |archive-date=17 November 2015 |url-status=live }}

In December 2020 one of the suspects, Walid Abdulrahman Abou Zayed, was handed over to French police (at a Norwegian airport) and flown to France.{{Cite web |url=https://www.rts.ch/info/monde/11802483-un-suspect-de-lattentat-de-la-rue-des-rosiers-en-1982-a-paris-mis-en-examen.html |title=Un suspect de l'attentat de la rue des Rosiers en 1982 à Paris mis en examen |date=5 December 2020 |website=rts.ch}}{{Cite web |url=https://www.nrk.no/norge/norsk-palestiner-utlevert-i-fransk-terrorsak-1.15274020 |title=Norsk-palestiner utlevert i fransk terrorsak |trans-title=Norwegian-Palestinian extradited in French terrorism case |language=Norwegian |first1=Odd |last1=Isungset |first2=Tormod |last2=Strand |first3=Vibeke Knoop |last3=Rachline |date=4 December 2020 |website=NRK }}{{Cite web |url=https://www.nrk.no/norge/terrortiltalt-norskpalestiner-utleveres-til-frankrike-1.15263561 |title=Terrortiltalt norskpalestiner utleveres til Frankrike |trans-title=Norwegian-Palestinian terror suspect extradited to France |language=Norwegian |first=Odd |last=Isungset |date=27 November 2020 |website=NRK }} Later in December, he was being held at La Sante Prison in Paris.{{Cite web|url=https://www.nrk.no/norge/xl/norsk-palestiner-utlevert-etter-terrorangrep-pa-joder-i-paris-1.15277664|title=Agenter fra Le Bureau fulgte terror-spor til norsk småby |first=Odd |last=Isungset |trans-title=Le Bureau agents followed terror trail to small Norwegian town |language=Norwegian |date=20 December 2020 |website=NRK }} As of March 2021, he is still in prison.{{Cite web |url=https://www.nrk.no/norge/norskpalestiner-fengslet-i-paris-1.15368884 |title=Norskpalestiner fengslet i Paris |trans-title=Norwegian-Palestinian jailed in Paris |language=Norwegian |first=Odd |last=Isungset |date=10 March 2021 |website=NRK }}

{{Further ill |Desecration of the Jewish cemetery of Carpentras|fr|Affaire de la profanation du cimetière juif de Carpentras}}

On 10 May 1990, a Jewish cemetery at Carpentras was desecrated. This led to a public uproar, and a protest demonstration in Paris attended by 200,000 persons, including French President François Mitterrand. After several years of investigation, five people, among them three former members of the extremist far-right French and European Nationalist Party confessed on 2 August 1996.{{Cite news |author= |date=30 October 1991 |title=Les attentats contre les foyers Sonacotra devant la cour d'assises des Alpes-Maritimes – Les commanditaires occultes de Gilbert Hervochon |trans-title=The attacks against the Sonacotra homes before the Alpes-Maritimes Assize Court – The hidden sponsors of Gilbert Hervochon |language=fr |work=Le Monde |url=https://www.lemonde.fr/archives/article/1991/10/30/les-attentats-contre-les-foyers-sonacotra-devant-la-cour-d-assises-des-alpes-maritimes-les-commanditaires-occultes-de-gilbert-hervochon_3543405_1819218.html |access-date=16 June 2020}}{{cite web |url=https://www.humanite.fr/le-proces-de-quatre-profanateurs-neo-nazis-apres-six-ans-de-fausses-pistes-153638 |first=Gilles |last=Smadja |title=Le procès de quatre profanateurs néo-nazis après six ans de fausses pistes |work=L'Humanité |date=17 March 1997 |language=fr |trans-title=Trial of four neo-Nazi profaners after six years of false leads |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230425114712/https://www.humanite.fr/le-proces-de-quatre-profanateurs-neo-nazis-apres-six-ans-de-fausses-pistes-153638 |archive-date=25 April 2023 |url-status=live }} On 5 June 1990, the PNFE magazine Tribune nationaliste was banned by the French authorities.{{Cite web |last=de Boissieu |first=Laurent |year=2018 |title=Parti Nationaliste Français et Européen (PNFE) |url=https://www.france-politique.fr/wiki/Parti_Nationaliste_Fran%C3%A7ais_et_Europ%C3%A9en_(PNFE) |url-status=live |website=France-politique|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130227015906/http://www.france-politique.fr:80/wiki/Parti_Nationaliste_Fran%C3%A7ais_et_Europ%C3%A9en_(PNFE) |archive-date=27 February 2013 }}

{{Main|Antisemitism in 21st-century France}}

France has the largest population of Jews in the diaspora after the United States{{snd}}an estimated 500,000–600,000 people. Paris has the highest population, followed by Marseille, which has 70,000 Jews, most of North African origin.

Expressions of antisemitism were seen to rise during the Six-Day War of 1967 and the French anti-Zionist campaign of the 1970s and 1980s.{{cite journal |url=http://navon.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/12/France-Israel-and-the-Jews_39-1.pdf |doi=10.1080/23739770.2015.1042277 |title=France, Israel, and the Jews: The End of an Era? |year=2015 |last1=Navon |first1=Emmanuel |journal=Israel Journal of Foreign Affairs |volume=9 |issue=2 |pages=201–211 |s2cid=143292064 }}{{cite web |url=https://frblogs.timesofisrael.com/le-surmoi-antisemite-de-la-television-francaise/ |title=Le Surmoi antisémite de la Télévision Française |newspaper=Times of Israel |language=fr |trans-title=The Anti-Semitic Superego of French Television |first=Alexandre |last=Gilbert |date=25 April 2016 }} Following the electoral successes achieved by the extreme right-wing National Front and an increasing denial of the Holocaust among some persons in the 1990s, surveys showed an increase in stereotypical antisemitic beliefs among the general French population.{{cite web |url=https://encyclopedia.ushmm.org/content/en/article/holocaust-denial-key-dates |title=Holocaust Denial: Key Dates |work=US Holocaust Museum }}{{cite web |url=http://www.democraticunion.eu/2014/11/holocaust-denial-legal-concept-europe/ |title=Holocaust denial/legal concepts in Europe |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180301112146/http://www.democraticunion.eu/2014/11/holocaust-denial-legal-concept-europe/ |archive-date=1 March 2018 |work=Project for Democratic Union |access-date=25 April 2023 }}{{Cite web |first=Valérie |last=Igounet |url=https://mondediplo.com/1998/05/08igou |title=Holocaust denial is part of a strategy |work=Le Monde diplomatique |date=May 1998 |access-date=25 April 2023 }} Since 2023, France has experienced a sharp increase in reported antisemitic incidents compared to previous years.{{Cite web |year=2025 |title=ANTISEMITISM WORLDWIDE Report For 2024 |url=https://cst.tau.ac.il/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/AntisemitismWorldwide_2024.pdf |website=Tel Aviv University |page=16}} A 2024 survey showed that 68% of French Jews feel unsafe in light of rising antisemitism.{{cite news |last= Eichner|first= Itamar |date= 15 July 2024|title= 'They called our children filthy Jews': French Jews feel unsafe amid rising antisemitism|url= https://www.ynetnews.com/article/hkd181m000|work= YNet |access-date=18 July 2024}}

{{Main|Dieudonné M'bala M'bala}}

Public personalities have caused controversy by their positions which they call "anti-Zionist". This is the case of comedian Dieudonné,{{cite web |first=Claude |last=Askolovitch |author-link=Claude Askolovitch |url=http://hebdo.nouvelobs.com/hebdo/parution/p2103/articles/a263557-dieudonne_enquete_sur_un_antisemite.html |title=De la cause noire à la haine des juifs. Dieudonné : Enquête sur un antisémite |trans-title=From civil rights to hatred of Jews. Dieudonné: Investigation into an anti-Semite |work=Le Nouvel observateur |date=24 February 2005 |language=French }}{{cite web |first=Jean-François |last=Kahn |author-link=Jean-François Kahn |url=https://www.marianne.net/La-double-defaite-des-antiracistes_a104731.html?start_liste=0&paa=1 |title=La double défaite des antiracistes |language=fr |trans-title=The double defeat of anti-racists |work=Marianne |date=19 February 2005 }} who was convicted of incitement to racial hatred,{{cite web |language=fr |url=http://www.europe1.fr/Politique/Dieudonne-condamne-en-appel-pour-incitation-a-la-haine-raciale-33950/ |title=Dieudonné condamné en appel pour incitation à la haine raciale |trans-title=Dieudonné sentenced on appeal for incitement to racial hatred |website=Europe 1 |date=15 November 2007}} and who, during the European elections of 2009, led an "Anti-Zionist slate"{{cite web |url=http://elections.interieur.gouv.fr/07/C07.html |title=Candidats aux élections européennes 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090528113241/http://elections.interieur.gouv.fr/07/C07.html |archive-date=28 May 2009 |trans-title=Candidates for the European elections 2009 |work=French Ministry of the Interior }} along with essayist Alain Soral, president of Égalité et Réconciliation, and Yahia Gouasmi, creator of the Anti-Zionist Party.{{cite web |url=http://www.lexpress.fr/actualite/societe/les-amis-tres-particuliers-du-centre-zahra_743285.html |title=Les amis très particuliers du centre Zahra |trans-title=The very special friends of the Zahra Center |work=L'Express |date=26 February 2009 |language=French }}{{cite web |url=http://20minutes.bondyblog.fr/news/200904140001/congres-de-l-uoif-dieudonne-et-soral-en-vedettes-americaines |title=Congrès de l'UOIF : Dieudonné et Soral en vedettes américaines |trans-title=UOIF Congress: Dieudonné and Soral as American stars |work=Bondy Blog |date=14 April 2009 |quote=À l'entrée du Parc des expositions, une jeune femme distribue des tracts aux participants, annonçant la candidature de Dieudonné, Alain Soral et Yahia Gouasmi, président de la Fédération chiite de France, aux élections européennes du 7 juin sous les couleurs d'un Parti anti sioniste (PAS) [At the entrance of the Parc des expositions, a young woman distributes leaflets to the participants, announcing the candidacy of Dieudonné, Alain Soral and Yahia Gouasmi, president of the Shiite Federation of France, for the European elections of June 7 under the colors of an anti-Zionist Party (PAS).] |access-date=9 July 2021 |archive-date=17 April 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090417045201/http://20minutes.bondyblog.fr/news/200904140001/congres-de-l-uoif-dieudonne-et-soral-en-vedettes-americaines |url-status=dead }}{{cite web |url=http://reflexes.samizdat.net/spip.php?article369#nb4 |title=La géopolitique pour les nuls II – Session de rattrapage |trans-title=Geopolitics for Dummies II – Catch-up session |at=Footnote 4 |work=REFLEXes |date=25 January 2009 }}

Despite gaining notoriety in his duo with Jewish comedian, Elie Semoun, in 1997 Dieudonné began incorporating antisemitism in his comedy and in his public persona. He was a proponent of the myth of Jewish conspiracy and power, often tying his anti-zionism with claims about "the Jewish lobby" and "the Jewish media." He touted Jewish responsibility for slavery and Jewish racism against Blacks and Arabs as reason for his beliefs about Jewish control, and allied with Holocaust deniers. Dieudonné leveled antisemitic attacks against many prominent French Jews such as Dominique Strauss-Kahn and Bernard-Henri Lévy among others. His antisemitism fuels his political and social campaigns, which resulted in a wave of antisemitic attacks against French Jews, including the killing of Ilan Halimi.Wistrich, Robert S. "Liberté, Egalité, Antisémitisme." A Lethal Obsession: Anti-Semitism from Antiquity to the Global Jihad, Random House, New York, 2010, pp. 329–339. Dieudonné has been fined ten of thousands of euros for defamation regarding antisemitic statements."Dieudonné doit 65 000 euros pour différentes condamnations" [archive], France TV Info, 3 janvier 2014

{{Further ill|Cercle Édouard Drumont|fr}}

The "Cercle Édouard Drumont" (named after the author of the antisemitic essay La France juive) was formed in 2019 to "honor" this "great man" and "nationalist" activist. For Libération journalist Pierre Plottu, this circle is close to Amitié et Action française, a dissident faction of Action française{{cite news |last=d'Angelo |first=Robin |title=Une scission et l'Action française ne sait plus comment elle s'appelle |trans-title=A schism, and Action Française doesn't know what to call itself anymore |url=https://www.liberation.fr/france/2019/03/18/une-scission-et-l-action-francaise-ne-sait-plus-comment-elle-s-appelle_1715996/ |date=18 March 2019 |newspaper=Liberation}} directed by lawyer {{ill|Elie Hatem|fr|v=sup}} who also organizes meetings where "the guest list is a who's who of the French antisemitic far right: Yvan Benedetti but also {{ill|Jérôme Bourbon|fr|v=sup}} (from the denialist newspaper Rivarol, Alain Escada (head of the national catholics of Civitas), the Soralian {{ill|Marion Sigaut|fr||v=sup}}, Pierre-Antoine Plaquevent (obsessed with Soros and 'the immigrant invasion'), Stéphanie Bignon (from Terre et Famille, close to Civitas), or the prince Sixte-Henri de Bourbon-Parme who is close to personalities of the rightist Rassemblement national."{{Cite web |language=fr |last=Plottu |first=Pierre |title=A Paris, les obsédés du complot juif se réunissent |trans-title=Jewish conspiracy theorists convene in Paris |url=https://www.liberation.fr/france/2020/02/28/a-paris-les-obsedes-du-complot-juif-se-reunissent_1779978 |website=Libération.fr |date=28 February 2020}}

A series of attacks on Jewish targets in France took place in a single week in 2002, coinciding with the Jewish holiday of Passover, including at least five synagogues.{{cite news |last1=Diamond |first1=Andrew |title=Weekend of anti-Semitism in France |url=http://www.jta.org/2002/04/01/life-religion/features/weekend-of-anti-semitism-in-france |website=JTA |date=1 April 2002}} The targeted synagogues include the Lyon synagogue, the Or Aviv synagogue in Marseille, which burned to the ground; a synagogue in Strasbourg, where a fire was set that burned the doors and facade of the building before being doused;{{cite news |last1=McNeil |first1=Donald |title=France Vows Harsh Action After More Synagogues Burn |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2002/04/02/international/europe/02FRAN.html |work=New York Times |date=2 April 2002}} and the firebombing of a synagogue in the Paris suburb of Le Kremlin-Bicêtre.{{cite news |last1=Tagliabue |first1=John |title=Synagogue In Paris Firebombed; Raids Go On |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2002/04/05/world/synagogue-in-paris-firebombed-raids-go-on.html |work=New York Times |date=5 April 2002}}

{{Main|Lyon synagogue attack}}

On 30 March 2002, a group of masked men rammed two cars through the courtyard gates of a synagogue in the {{ill|La Duchere|fr|v=sup}} neighborhood of Lyon, France, then rammed one of the cars into the prayer hall before setting the vehicles on fire and causing severe damage to the synagogue.

The attack took place at 1:00 am on a Saturday morning; the building was empty at the time. The attackers wore masks or hoods covering their faces, and eyewitnesses reported seeing twelve or fifteen attackers.{{cite news |title=Vandals crash cars through French synagogue |url=http://azdailysun.com/vandals-crash-cars-through-french-synagogue/article_a3a07e4c-8d84-55f4-9b2b-5b6bccaee9bb.html |via=AP |website=Arizona Daily Sun |date=30 March 2002}}{{cite news |title=Shooting in France in Wave of Anti-Jewish Attacks |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2002/04/01/international/europe/01FRAN.html |work=New York Times |date=1 April 2002}}{{cite news |last1=Horn |first1=Heather |title=The Jewish School Shooting and Patterns of Violence |url=https://www.theatlantic.com/international/archive/2012/03/the-jewish-school-shooting-and-patterns-of-violence/254707/ |website=The Atlantic |date=19 March 2012}}

{{Main|Kidnapping and murder of Ilan Halimi}}

File:Manifestation Ilan Halimi.jpg

Ilan Halimi was a young Frenchman of Moroccan Jewish ancestry living in Paris with his mother and his two sisters.{{cite web |url=http://www.nysun.com/foreign/tale-of-torture-and-murder-horrifies-the-whole/27948/ |title=Tale of Torture and Murder Horrifies the Whole of France |first=Michel |last=Gurfinkiel |authorlink=Michel Gurfinkiel |work=The New York Sun |date=22 February 2006 |access-date=8 July 2021 |archive-date=6 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211006151149/https://www.nysun.com/foreign/tale-of-torture-and-murder-horrifies-the-whole/27948/ |url-status=dead }} On 21 January 2006, Halimi was kidnapped by a group calling itself the Gang of Barbarians. The kidnappers, believing that all Jews are rich, repeatedly contacted the victim's family of modest means demanding very large sums of money.{{Cite web |title=The Rising Tide of Anti-Semitism |url=https://www.washingtontimes.com/news/2006/apr/02/20060402-112829-7874r/ |access-date=30 December 2008 |last=Fields |first=Suzanne |date=3 April 2006 |work=The Washington Times}}

After three weeks and no success in finding the captors, the family and the police stopped receiving messages from the captors. Halimi, severely tortured, burned over more than 80% of his body, was dumped unclothed and barely alive by the side of a road in Sainte-Geneviève-Des-Bois on 13 February 2006. He was found by a passerby who immediately called for an ambulance, but Halimi died from his injuries on the way to the hospital.{{citation needed|date=July 2021}}

The French police were heavily criticized because they initially believed that antisemitism was not a factor in the crime.{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2006/02/23/international/europe/23paris.html |title=French Officials Now Say Killing of Jew Was in Part a Hate Crime |access-date=30 December 2008 |last=Bernard |first=Ariane |author2=Craig S. Smith |author2-link=Craig S. Smith |date=23 February 2006 |newspaper=The New York Times}} The case drew national and international attention as an example of antisemitism in France.

{{Main|2012 Ozar Hatorah Toulouse shooting}}

The Ozar Hatorah school in Toulouse is part of a national chain of at least twenty Jewish schools throughout France. It educates children of primarily Sephardic, Middle Eastern and North African descent, who with their parents have made up the majority of Jewish immigrants to France since the late 20th century. The school is a middle and secondary school, with most children between the ages of 11 and 17.

At about 8:00 am on 19 March 2012, a man rode up to the Ozar Hatorah school on a motorcycle. Dismounting, he immediately opened fire toward the schoolyard. The first victim was 30-year-old Jonathan Sandler, a rabbi and teacher at the school who was shot outside the school gates as he tried to shield his two young sons from the gunman. The gunman shot both the boys{{snd}}5-year-old Arié and 3-year-old Gabriel{{Cite web|url=https://www.gouvernement.fr/partage/7175-visite-officielle-en-israel-et-dans-les-territoires-palestiniens|title=Visite officielle en Israël et dans les Territoires palestiniens|website=Gouvernement.fr|language=fr|access-date=6 November 2019}}{{snd}}before walking into the schoolyard, chasing people into the building.

Inside, he shot at staff, parents, and students. He chased 8-year-old Myriam Monsonego,{{Cite web|url=https://www.makorrishon.co.il/nrg/online/1/ART2/858/155.html|title=חמש שנים אחרי: הורי הנרצחת בטולוז מדברים לראשונה|website=makorrishon.co.il|access-date=6 November 2019}} the daughter of the head teacher, into the courtyard, caught her by her hair and raised a gun to shoot her. The gun jammed at this point. He changed weapons from what the police identified as a 9mm pistol to a .45 calibre gun, and shot the girl in her temple at point-blank range.{{cite news |last=Rothman |first=Andrea|title=4 Dead in Shooting at Jewish School in France |url=http://www.businessweek.com/news/2012-03-19/three-dead-in-shooting-in-front-of-french-jewish-school-afp |newspaper=Businessweek |date=19 March 2012 |agency=Bloomberg |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120322010606/http://www.businessweek.com/news/2012-03-19/three-dead-in-shooting-in-front-of-french-jewish-school-afp |url-status=dead|archive-date=22 March 2012}}{{cite news|last=Govan|first=Fiona|title=Toulouse shooting: heartbreaking detail of attack that shocked France and Israel|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/europe/france/9156459/Toulouse-shooting-heartbreaking-detail-of-attack-that-shocked-France-and-Israel.html|work=The Daily Telegraph |access-date=20 March 2012|date=20 March 2012}}{{Cite news|agency=Associated Press |url=http://hosted.ap.org/dynamic/stories/E/EU_FRANCE_SCHOOL_SHOOTINGS?SITE=AP&SECTION=HOME&TEMPLATE=DEFAULT&CTIME=2012-03-19-06-40-07 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210709185124/http://hosted.ap.org/dynamic/stories/E/EU_FRANCE_SCHOOL_SHOOTINGS?SITE=AP&SECTION=HOME&TEMPLATE=DEFAULT&CTIME=2012-03-19-06-40-07 |url-status=dead |archive-date=9 July 2021 |date=19 March 2012 |title=Gunman kills 4 outside Jewish school in France |access-date=19 March 2012 }}{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2012/03/20/world/europe/gunman-kills-3-at-a-jewish-school-in-france.html |date=19 March 2012 |title=4 Killed at Jewish School in Southwestern France |first1=Scott |last1=Sayare |first2=Steven |last2=Erlanger |work=The New York Times }} Bryan Bijaoui, a 17-year-old{{cite web |last=Maiberg |first=Emanuel |date=22 March 2012 |url=https://www.timesofisrael.com/french-teenager-who-tried-to-save-toulouse-victim-still-hospitalized/ |title=French teen who tried to save Toulouse victim still hospitalized |work=The Times of Israel |access-date=30 March 2012 }} boy, was also shot and gravely injured.{{cite web |url=https://www.elle.fr/Societe/News/Tuerie-de-Toulouse-le-lyceen-blesse-va-mieux-1973992 |title=Tuerie de Toulouse : le lycéen blessé va mieux – societe |work=Elle |language=fr |access-date=30 March 2012 }} The gunman retrieved his scooter and rode away.

The government was already providing continuous protection to many Jewish institutions, but it increased security and raised the terrorist warnings to the highest level. Traffic on streets in France with Jewish institutions was closed for additional security. The election campaign was suspended and President Nicolas Sarkozy, as well as other candidates in the presidential elections, immediately traveled to Toulouse and the school.{{cite news|url=https://www.lemonde.fr/election-presidentielle-2012/article/2012/03/19/fusillade-de-toulouse-sarkozy-decrete-une-minute-de-silence_1672182_1471069.html |title=Fusillade de Toulouse : une minute de silence observée mardi dans les écoles |date=19 March 2012|work=Le Monde |trans-title=Toulouse shooting: a minute of silence observed Tuesday in schools |access-date=19 March 2012 |language=fr}}

File:The Wreath Laid by Secretary Kerry and French Foreign Minister Fabius Is Pictured Outside the Hyper Cacher Kosher Market in Paris (16106400057).jpg and French Foreign Minister outside the Hyper Cacher Kosher Market in Paris]]

{{Main|Hypercacher kosher supermarket siege}}

On 9 January 2015, Amedy Coulibaly, who had pledged allegiance to the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant,{{cite news|url=https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/world/2015/01/11/video-gunman-islamic-state/21589723/|title=Video shows Paris gunman pledging allegiance to Islamic State|author=Jane Onyanga-Omara|date=11 January 2015|work=USA Today}} attacked the people in a Hypercacher kosher food supermarket at Porte de Vincennes in east Paris. He killed four people, all of whom were Jewish,{{cite news|url=https://www.jta.org/2015/01/11/culture/from-the-archive-a-fatal-synagogue-bombing-in-paris |title=A fatal synagogue bombing in Paris |work=Jewish Telegraphic Agency |date=11 January 2015 |first=Julie |last=Wiener |access-date=25 April 2023 }}{{cite news|url=http://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-4613514,00.html|title=Four victims of terror attack on kosher supermarket named|work=ynet|date=10 January 2015|last1=Eichner|first1=Itamar|last2=Cadars|first2=Rachel}} and took several hostages.{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/live/world-europe-30722098|title=Charlie Hebdo attack: Manhunt – live reporting|publisher=BBC News|date=9 January 2015}}{{cite web|url=http://www.haaretz.com/news/world/1.636178|title=Paris shooting updates / Charlie Hebdo attackers take hostage after car chase|date=9 January 2015|work=Haaretz}} Some media outlets claimed he had a female accomplice, speculated initially to be his common-law wife, Hayat Boumeddiene.{{cite web|url=http://www.midilibre.fr/2015/01/09/prise-d-otages-dans-une-epicerie-casher-par-un-homme-arme-porte-de-vincennes,1108461.php|title=Direct – Porte de Vincennes: plusieurs otages, au moins deux morts|publisher=MidiLibre.fr}}

{{Main|Killing of Sarah Halimi}}

{{Annotated image

| image = Manifestation Justice-pour Sarah Halimi.jpg|thumb|Manifestation Justice-pour Sarah Halimi

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| caption = Paris demonstration 25 April 2021 in memory of Sarah Halimi

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Sarah Halimi (no relation to Ilhan Halimi) was a retired doctor and schoolteacher who was attacked and killed in her apartment on 4 April 2017. The circumstances surrounding the killing{{snd}}including the fact that Halimi was the only Jewish resident in her building, and that the assailant shouted Allahu akbar during the attack and afterward proclaimed "I killed the Shaitan"{{snd}}cemented the public perception of the incident, particularly among the French Jewish community, as a stark example of antisemitism in modern France.

For several months the government and some of the media hesitated to label the killing as antisemitic, drawing criticism from public figures such as Bernard-Henri Lévy. The government eventually acknowledged an antisemitic motivation for the killing. The assailant was declared to be not criminally responsible when the judges ruled he was undergoing a psychotic episode due to cannabis consumption, as established by independent psychiatric analysis.{{Cite news|date=2 May 2021|title=Sarah Halimi: How killer on drugs escaped French trial for anti-Semitic murder|language=en-GB|work=BBC News|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-56929040|access-date=15 May 2021}} The decision was appealed to the supreme Court of Cassation,{{cite news|url=https://www.france24.com/en/20200105-hundreds-rally-in-paris-to-seek-justice-for-murdered-jewish-woman-sarah-halimi|work=France24|last=Theise|first=Philippe|title=Hundreds rally in Paris to seek justice for murdered Jewish woman Sarah Halimi|date=1 May 2020|accessdate=4 June 2020}} who in 2021 upheld the lower court's ruling.{{cite web|url=https://www.timesofisrael.com/liveblog_entry/french-top-court-rules-against-trying-muslim-who-killed-sarah-halimi/|title=French top court rules against trying Muslim who killed Sarah Halimi|work=The Times of Israel|date=14 April 2021|accessdate=10 May 2021}}

The killing has been compared to the murder of Mireille Knoll in the same arrondissement less than a year later, and to the murder of Ilan Halimi (no relation) eleven years earlier.{{cite news|last1=McAuley|first1=James|date=23 July 2017|title=In France, murder of a Jewish woman ignites debate over the word 'terrorism'|newspaper=The Washington Post|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/europe/in-france-the-murder-of-a-jewish-woman-ignites-a-debate-over-terrorism/2017/07/23/4c79fe28-6bb9-11e7-abbc-a53480672286_story.html|url-status=live|accessdate=29 August 2017|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20190617230056/https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/europe/frances-jewish-leaders-raise-the-alarm-over-brutal-murder-of-holocaust-survivor/2018/03/26/28cf8686-30f4-11e8-8abc-22a366b72f2d_story.html|archivedate=17 June 2019}}

File:Marche blanche Mireille Knoll Paris.jpg

{{Main|Murder of Mireille Knoll}}

Mireille Knoll was an 85-year-old French Jewish woman holocaust survivor who was murdered in her Paris apartment on 23 March 2018. The murder has been officially described by French authorities as an antisemitic hate crime.

Of the two alleged assailants, one was a 29-year-old neighbor of Knoll, who suffered from Parkinson's disease,{{Cite web |url=http://www.bfmtv.com/police-justice/meurtre-de-mireille-knoll-ce-que-revele-le-pv-des-enqueteurs-1409214.html |title=Meurtre de Mireille Knoll: ce que révèle le PV des enquêteurs |last= |website=BFMTV |language=fr-FR |access-date=6 April 2018}} and had known her since he was a child, and the other, an unemployed 21-year-old. The two suspects entered the apartment and reportedly stabbed Knoll eleven times before setting her on fire.{{cite news |last1=Weiss |first1=Bari |title=Jews Are Being Murdered in Paris. Again. |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2018/03/30/opinion/jews-murder-paris-knoll.html |accessdate=3 April 2018 |work=The New York Times |date=30 March 2018}}{{cite news |last1=Peltier |first1=Elian |last2=Breeden |first2=Aurelien |title=Mireille Knoll, Murdered Holocaust Survivor, Is Honored in Paris |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2018/03/28/world/europe/mireille-knoll-murder-holocaust.html |accessdate=28 March 2018 |work=New York Times |date=28 March 2018}}{{cite news |last1=Bremmer |first1=Charles |title=Two charged with killing 85-year-old Holocaust survivor Mireille Knoll |url=https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/two-charged-with-killing-85-year-old-holocaust-survivor-mireille-knoll-antisemitism-nz39s09jg |accessdate=3 April 2018 |publisher=The Times (of London) |date=28 March 2018}}

The Paris prosecutor's office characterized the 23 March murder as a hate crime, a murder committed because of the "membership, real or supposed, of the victim of a particular religion." The New York Times noted, "The speed with which the authorities recognized the hate-crime nature of Ms. Knoll's murder is being seen as a reaction to the anger of France's Jews at the official response to that earlier crime, which prosecutors took months to characterize as antisemitic."{{cite news |last1=Nossiter |first1=Adam |title=She Survived the Holocaust, to Die in a 2018 Hate Crime |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2018/03/26/world/europe/france-holocaust-survivor-murder.html |accessdate=28 March 2018 |work=New York Times |date=26 March 2018}}{{cite web |url=https://www.timesofisrael.com/slain-holocaust-survivors-family-she-knew-her-killer-since-he-was-a-boy/ |title=Slain Holocaust survivor's family: She'd known her killer since he was a boy |work=The Times of Israel |date=27 March 2018 |accessdate=10 May 2021}}{{cite web |url=https://www.algemeiner.com/2019/05/10/french-police-to-hold-reconstruction-of-gruesome-murder-of-holocaust-survivor-mireille-knoll/ |title=French Police to Hold Reconstruction of Gruesome Murder of Holocaust Survivor Mireille Knoll |work=The Algemeiner |first=Ben |last=Cohen |date=10 May 2019 |accessdate=10 May 2021}}

{{Main|Antisemitism during the Gaza war}}

According to a report from the Conseil Représentatif des Institutions juives de France (CRIF), the number of antisemitic crimes in France in 2023 nearly quadrupled compared to 2022, with 1,676 reported incidents.{{Cite web |date=2024-01-24 |title=Crif – Rapport sur les chiffres de l'antisémitisme en 2023 présenté par le SPCJ : Flambée des actes antisémites en France à partir du 7 octobre |url=https://www.crif.org/fr/content/crif-rapport-sur-les-chiffres-de-lantisemitisme-en-2023-flambee-des-actes-antisemites-en-france-a-partir-du-7-octobre |access-date=2025-01-22 |website=Crif – Conseil Représentatif des Institutions Juives de France |language=fr}} In 2024, the number remained high, reaching 1,570 antisemitic incidents.{{Cite web |date=2025-01-22 |title=Anti-Semitic acts at 'historic' highs in France despite 2024 fall: council |url=https://www.france24.com/en/live-news/20250122-anti-semitic-acts-at-historic-highs-in-france-despite-2024-fall-council |access-date=2025-03-24 |website=France 24 |language=en}}{{str rep|{{excerpt|Antisemitism during the Gaza war|France|paragraphs=1-3|hat=no}}|in France,|in France during the Gaza war,}}On 17 May 2024, a synagogue in Rouen was set on fire by an Algerian man, who threw a petrol bomb through a small window. The fire inside the synagogue was eventually brought under control by firefighters, with no reported victims other than the arsonist, who was shot by the police. The synagogue was significantly damaged, although the Torah scrolls remained unharmed.{{Cite news |last=Breeden |first=Aurelien |date=17 May 2024 |title=French Police Shoot and Kill Man Who Set Fire to Synagogue |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2024/05/17/world/europe/france-synagogue-fire-man-shot.html |access-date=18 May 2024 |work=The New York Times |language=en-US |issn=0362-4331}}{{Cite web |title=Rouen: Man shot dead after French synagogue set on fire |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/articles/cp3g8kl8dd5o |access-date=18 May 2024 |website=www.bbc.com |language=en-GB}} Since the beginning of the war, there have been approximately 100 antisemitic incidents per month, threatening to become a new norm.{{cite news |last= Michael|first= Starr|date= 31 July 2024|title= Antisemitism in France set to become the new norm, with 100 incidents monthly – SPCJ report|url= https://www.jpost.com/diaspora/antisemitism/article-812678|work= Jerusalem Post|access-date=1 August 2024}}

On 17 June 2024, a 12-year-old Jewish girl in Paris was gang-raped by three boys aged 12 to 14 in an abandoned hangar. The attack, which included antisemitic slurs, occurred after the girl's former boyfriend accused her of hiding her Jewish identity. The suspects were arrested, and investigators found antisemitic content on one of their phones.{{Cite news |last=Ynet |date=2024-06-18 |title=Jewish girl, 12, gang raped in Paris in apparent antisemitic attack |url=https://www.ynetnews.com/article/bj1ygv1lc |access-date=2024-06-18 |work=Ynetnews |language=en}}{{Cite web |last=Pope |first=Felix |title=Children arrested in France after 12-year-old Jewish girl raped in 'antisemitic attack' |url=https://www.thejc.com/news/world/children-arrested-in-france-after-12-year-old-jewish-girl-raped-in-antisemitic-attack-ohvb8dd0 |access-date=2024-06-18 |website=www.thejc.com |language=en}}{{Cite web |date=2024-06-18 |title=French police probe gang rape of 12-year-old Jewish girl in 'antisemitic crime' – report |url=https://www.jpost.com/breaking-news/article-806768 |access-date=2024-06-18 |website=The Jerusalem Post {{!}} JPost.com |language=en}} Another suspect admitted to hitting the victim due to her negative comments about Palestine.{{Cite web |date=2024-06-18 |title=French police probe gang rape of 12-year-old Jewish girl in 'antisemitic crime' – report |url=https://www.jpost.com/breaking-news/article-806768 |access-date=2024-06-18 |website=The Jerusalem Post {{!}} JPost.com |language=en}} The girl was reportedly called a "dirty Jew" and received death threats.{{Cite web |last=Vandoorne |first=Niamh Kennedy, Emmanuel Miculita, Saskya |date=2024-06-20 |title=Alleged rape of 12-year-old Jewish girl sparks antisemitism outcry in France |url=https://www.cnn.com/2024/06/20/europe/france-alleged-rape-anti-semitism-intl-latam/index.html |access-date=2024-06-22 |website=CNN |language=en}}

On 24 August 2024, an explosion outside a synagogue in southern French – deemed a terrorist attack – injured a police officer.{{cite news |date= 24 August 2024|title= Blast outside France synagogue, deemed terror attack; officer wounded|url= https://www.ynetnews.com/article/sjzupmdsc|work= YNet News |access-date=28 August 2024}} The following day, a Jewish woman filed a complaint with French police that a man with a knife approached her on a Paris street, threatening to "kill Jews".{{cite news |last=

Eichner|first= Itamar|date= 26 August 2024|title= Man brandishing knife 'to kill Jews' approaches Jewish woman on Paris street|url= https://www.ynetnews.com/article/bkpydqcsr|work= YNET News |access-date=28 August 2024}} In response to the synagogue explosion, a "citizen rally to say no to antisemitism" was held.{{cite news |last= Starr|first= Michael|date= 27 August 2024|title= Rallies against antisemitism held in southern France after synagogue terrorist attack|url= https://www.jpost.com/breaking-news/article-816654|work= Jerusalem Post|access-date=28 August 2024}} French Interior Minister Gérald Darmanin denounced the surge in antisemitism.{{cite news |date= 26 August 2024|title= French interior minister slams 'surge in antisemitism' after synagogue attack near Nîmes|url= https://www.euronews.com/my-europe/2024/08/26/french-interior-minister-slams-surge-in-antisemitism-after-synagogue-attack-near-nimes|work= Euro News|access-date=28 August 2024}} Following these attacks, some Jews began to express concerns about the future of Jews in France.{{cite news |last= Starr|first= Michael|date= 2 September 2024|title= Consistory VP: 'Jews are beginning to lose hope for a future in France' – interview|url= https://www.jpost.com/diaspora/antisemitism/article-817420|work= Jerusalem Post |access-date=5 September 2024}}

On 5-6 January 2025, At least 10 Jewish homes, businesses, and a synagogue in Paris and Rouen have been vandalized with antisemitic symbols, including swastikas. Some of the graffiti praised Hitler, while others said antisemitic slogans, such as "Jews pedophiles, rapists to be gassed".{{Cite web |last=Baum |first=Caroline |last2=Nourrisson |first2=Sérène |last3= |date=2025-01-08 |title=Jewish homes and businesses defaced with antisemitic graffiti in France |url=https://edition.cnn.com/2025/01/08/europe/antisemitic-graffiti-france-homes-businesses-intl-latam/index.html |access-date=2025-01-22 |website=CNN |language=en}}

{{Further|New antisemitism|Antisemitism in 21st-century France}}

{{expand section|small=no|find=new antisemitism|find2=France|date=November 2021}}

Since 2000, France has experienced "an explosion of antisemitism, unprecedented since the Second World War", according to Timothy Peace. Statistics for assaults, attacks on property, and desecration (such as in cemeteries) have increased. Antisemitism in the form of public expression (chants, slogans and placards with "Death to the Jews" and so on) and tensions in public places such as schools have mounted. As a result, the Jewish community is becoming increasingly concerned and fearful; some parents have removed their children from schools, and a record number have been leaving France and emigrating to Israel or other countries. The rise in incidents since 2000 has resulted in numerous books, press, and other media coverage, and gave rise to a debate about a "new antisemitism",{{cite news |last1=Nossiter |first1=Adam |title='They Spit When I Walked in the Street': The 'New Anti-Semitism' in France |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2018/07/27/world/europe/france-new-anti-semitism.html |access-date=25 April 2023 |date=27 July 2018}} whether it exists in France, and if so, who is responsible for committing such acts, and why.{{cite journal |last=Peace |first=Timothy |title='Un Antisemitisme Nouveau?' The Debate about a 'New Antisemitism' in France |journal=Patterns of Prejudice |publisher=Taylor & Francis |volume=43 |issue=2 |date=May 2009 |pages=103–121 |doi=10.1080/00313220902793773 |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/00313220902793773 |hdl=1893/22119 |s2cid=143997792 |hdl-access=free }}

Since 2010 or so, more French Jews have been moving to Israel in response to rising antisemitism in France.

Threats and violence from radicalized Islamists have caused heightened security concerns for Jews in France, as well as schools, religious institutions, and other gathering places. The situation is causing many Jews to reevaluate their future in France.{{cite journal |first=Günther |last=Jikeli |title=Antisemitic Acts and Attitudes in Contemporary France: The Effects on French Jews |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.2979/antistud.2.2.06 |journal=Antisemitism Studies |volume=2 |number=2 |year=2018 |pages=297–320 |doi=10.2979/antistud.2.2.06 |jstor=10.2979/antistud.2.2.06 |s2cid=166079350 |access-date=19 August 2021|url-access=subscription }}

Increasing attacks in France such as the pro-Palestinian demonstrations in 2014 morphed into attacks on the Jewish community as well as individual attacks have affected the sense of personal security among Jews in France. One-third of all French Jews who have emigrated to Israel since its founding in 1948 have done so in the ten years following 2009.{{cite magazine |last=Schwartz |first=Yardena |title='Things have only gotten worse': French Jews are fleeing their country |date=20 November 2019 |magazine=National Geographic |url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/history/article/french-jews-fleeing-country |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210217192157/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/history/article/french-jews-fleeing-country |url-status=dead |archive-date=17 February 2021 |access-date=19 August 2021}}

This is of great concern to the French government, which has been both tracking incidents and speaking out against what appears to be a rising tide of antisemitism in the country.{{cite news |last=McAuley |first=James |title=As anti-Semitism rises in France, Macron's government struggles to respond |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/as-anti-semitism-rises-in-france-macrons-government-struggles-to-respond/2019/02/19/2aa9fb52-345a-11e9-8375-e3dcf6b68558_story.html |newspaper=Washington Post |date=19 February 2019}} Statistics compiled from various sources showed a leap of 74% in antisemitic acts in France in 2018, and a further 27% rise the year following.{{cite web |last=Albessard |first=Timothée |title='The darkness drops again': The Rise of Anti-Semitism in France |url=https://www.institutegreatereurope.com/single-post/2020/02/24/-the-darkness-drops-again-the-rise-of-anti-semitism-in-france |date=24 February 2020 |publisher=Institute for a Greater Europe |access-date=19 August 2021 |archive-date=19 August 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210819091645/https://www.institutegreatereurope.com/single-post/2020/02/24/-the-darkness-drops-again-the-rise-of-anti-semitism-in-france |url-status=dead }}

{{div col|colwidth=20em}}

• France–Israel relations
• Antisemitic publications in France
• Antisemitism in 21st-century France
• Antisemitism in Spain
• Antisemitism in Christianity
• Catholic Church and Judaism
• Catholic Church and Nazi Germany during World War II
• French Fourth Republic
• French nationalism
• French Third Republic
• German occupation of France
• History of far-right movements in France
• History of the Jews in France
• Jewish disabilities (medieval law)
• Jewish Museum of Belgium shooting
• Law of 3 October 1940 on the Status of Jews
• Mais qui?
• Maurice Papon
• Pope Pius XII and the Holocaust
• Pursuit of Nazi collaborators
• Religious antisemitism
• Rene Bousquet
• Strasbourg Cathedral bombing plot
• The Holocaust in France
• Toulouse and Montauban shootings
• Vichy anti-Jewish legislation
• Vichy Holocaust collaboration timeline
• Zone libre

{{div col end}}

;Notes

{{Notelist}}

;Footnotes

{{Reflist}}

{{refbegin|30em}}

• {{cite book |last=Aston |first=Nigel |title=Religion and Revolution in France, 1780-1804 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WsIAboRxnRkC |year=2000 |publisher=Catholic University of America Press |location=Washington D.C. |isbn=978-0-8132-0977-7 |oclc=59522675}}

• {{cite book |last=Benbassa |first=Esther |title=The Jews of France: A History from Antiquity to the Present |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=G_00s10twe4C&pg=PA4 |date=2 July 2001 |translator-last=DeBevoise |translator-first=M.B. |publisher=Princeton University Press |orig-year=1st pub. 1997 (in French: Histoire des Juifs de France) Editions du Seuil |isbn=1-4008-2314-5 |oclc=700688446}}

• {{cite book |last=Birnbaum |first=Pierre |title=Est-il des moyens de rendre les Juifs plus utiles et plus heureux? : le concours de l'Académie de Metz (1787) |trans-title=Are there ways to make the Jews more useful and happy? The Metz Academy Competition |publisher=Seuil |date=2017 |isbn=978-2-02-118317-7 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XDq_DgAAQBAJ&pg=PA493}}

• {{cite book |title=Dictionnaire de la politique française |trans-title=Dictionary of French politics |last=Coston |first=Henry |volume=3 |publisher=Henry Coston |location=Paris|date=1 January 1979}}

• {{cite book |language=fr |last=Diamant |first=David |title=Le billet vert: la vie et la résistance à Pithiviers et Beaune-la-Rolande, camps pour juifs, camps pour chrétiens, camps pour patriotes |trans-title=The green ticket: life and resistance in Pithiviers and Beaune-la-Rolande, camps for Jews, camps for Christians, camps for patriots |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QwsjAAAAMAAJ |access-date=27 May 2020 |year=1977 |publisher=Éditions Renouveau}}

• {{cite book |last1=Durant |first1=Will |last2=Durant |first2=Ariel |title=The Renaissance: A History of Civilization in Italy from 1304-1576 A.D. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sjzi56FhIeIC&pg=PR4 |series=Story of civilization, pt. 5 |year=1953 |publisher=Simon and Schuster |isbn=978-0-671-61600-7 |oclc=879498943 |ref={{harvid|Durant|1953}}}}

• {{cite book |last=Foa |first=Anna |title=The Jews of Europe After the Black Death |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WBchbFySf-UC |date=19 November 2000 |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0-520-08765-1 |oclc=492592706}}

• {{cite journal |last=Epstein |first=Mortimer |journal=The Statesman's Year-Book |title=The Statesman's Year-Book : Statistical and Historical Annual of the States of the World for the Year 1942 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5GoY1reI4YQC |year=1942 |volume=79 |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |oclc=1086492287 |quote=Legal position of Jews in Vichy France.{{snd}}Almost immediately after the armistice, the Vichy government proclaimed its intention to deprive of their civil rights French people who are of Jewish faith or origin, and to place the Jews in the position of legal inferiority in which they find themselves in all other German-dominated countries. On October 3, 1940 (Journel Officiel of October 18), a law was published fixing the conditions under which a person is considered as being of Jewish origin. Access to all public offices, professions, journalism, executive positions in the film industry, etc. was prohibited to all such persons.}}

• {{cite journal |last=Feuerwerker |first=David |title=Les juifs en France : anatomie de 307 cahiers de doléances de 1789 |trans-title=The Jews in France: Anatomy of 307 Grievances Registers of 1789 |journal=Annales |issn=1953-8146 |date=1965 |volume=20 |issue=1 |via=Persée |url=https://www.persee.fr/doc/ahess_0395-2649_1965_num_20_1_421760 |pages=45–61|doi=10.3406/ahess.1965.421760 |s2cid=161184833 }}

• {{cite book |last=Fresco |first=Nadine |title=On the Death of Jews: Photographs and History |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UbcCEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA21 |date=4 March 2021 |publisher=Berghahn Books |location=New York |isbn=978-1-78920-882-5 |oclc=1226797554 |orig-year=1st pub. La mort des juifs. Paris : Seuil, 2008 |translator-last=Clift |translator-first=Sarah |quote=On the preceding page, the law from the day before (3 October 1940), signed by Marshall Philip Pétain and nine of his ministers, is the 'law on the status of the Jews.' We know that those in charge of Vichy, 'complicit even before having understood the inevitable extent of their own compromise', did not wait for it to be imposed by the occupying power before enacting it.⁷³ We also know that whereas the German ordinance of the preceding month defined Jews by 'religion', the French statute of 3 October defined them by race.⁷⁴}}

• {{cite book |last=Gottfried |first=Robert S. |title=Black Death |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oK4HTBcdSJsC |date=11 May 2010 |publisher=Simon and Schuster |isbn=978-1-4391-1846-7 |oclc=1000454039}}

• {{cite book |last1=Hyman |first1=Paula E. |last2=Sorkin |first2=David |title=The Jews of Modern France |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7vK-yH_0gSgC |series=Jewish Communities in the Modern World, 1 |date=22 December 1998 |publisher=University of California Press |location=Berkeley |isbn=978-0-520-91929-7 |oclc=1149453952}}

• {{cite journal |last=Joly |first=Laurent |title=L'administration française et le statut du 2 juin 1941 |trans-title=French administration and the law of 2 June 1941 |journal=Archives Juives. Revue d'histoire des juifs de France |location=Paris|publisher=:fr:Les Belles Lettres |doi=10.3917/aj.411.0025 |volume=41 |issue=1 |date= 2008 |pages=25–40 |issn=1965-0531 |oclc=793455446 |url=https://www.cairn.info/revue-archives-juives-2008-1-page-25.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150321072116/http://www.cairn.info/revue-archives-juives-2008-1-page-25.htm |archive-date=21 March 2015 |quote=This ... was reflected in the drafting of the law of 2 June. In close collaboration and in perfect symbiosis with Admiral Darlan's services and the ministries concerned, the General Commission for Jewish Questions tightened the definition of a Jew (in order to escape the increased strictures of the law, "demi-Jews" had to have belonged to some religion other than Judaism before 25 June 1940) and extended the scope of prohibited occupations. Ce ... se ressent dans la rédaction de la loi du 2 juin. En étroite collaboration et en parfaite symbiose avec les services de l'amiral Darlan et les ministères concernés, le commissariat général aux Questions juives aggrave la définition du Juif (les « demi-juifs » doivent obligatoirement avoir adhéré à une religion autre que la religion juive avant le 25 juin 1940 pour échapper aux rigueurs de la loi) et étend le champ des interdictions professionnelles.|url-access=subscription }}

• {{cite book |last=Kantor |first=Máttis |title=Codex Judaica: Chronological Index of Jewish History, Covering 5,764 Years of Biblical, Talmudic & Post-Talmudic History |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6uK5pa3R4d8C |year=2005 |publisher=Zichron Press |location=New York |isbn=978-0-9670378-3-7 |oclc=62882184}}

• {{cite book |last=Klarsfeld |first=Serge |title=Memorial to the Jews Deported from France, 1942–1944: Documentation of the Deportation of the Victims of the Final Solution in France |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZaG7AAAAIAAJ |year=1983 |publisher=B. Klarsfeld Foundation |oclc=970847660 |quote=3) A law of October 3, 1940, on the status of Jews excluded them from most public and private professions and defined Jews on the basis of racial criteria.}}

• {{cite book |last=Laub |first=Thomas J. |title=After the Fall: German Policy in Occupied France, 1940–1944 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MNkVDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA217 |year=2010 |publisher=OUP |location=Oxford |isbn=978-0-19-953932-1 |pages=217 |access-date=27 May 2020}}

• {{cite book |last1=Lindemann |first1=Albert S. |last2=Levy |first2=Richard S. |title=Antisemitism: A History |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SaEUDAAAQBAJ |date=28 October 2010 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-923503-2}}

• {{cite book |last=Marshall |first=John |title=John Locke, Toleration and Early Enlightenment Culture |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dRb-P3HRuvkC |date=30 March 2006 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-65114-1 |oclc=901461275}}

• {{cite journal |last=Morin |first=Robert |title=Diderot, l'Encyclopédie et le Dictionnaire de Trévoux |journal=Recherches sur Diderot et sur l'Encyclopédie |issn=1955-2416 |date=October 1989 |volume=7 |issue=7 |pages=71–122 |doi=10.3406/rde.1989.1034 |via=Persée |url=https://www.persee.fr/issue/rde_0769-0886_1989_num_7_1?sectionId=rde_0769-0886_1989_num_7_1_1034}}

• {{cite book |language=fr |last=Poliakov |first=Léon |title=Histoire de l'antisémitisme: L'age de la science |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ysJMygEACAAJ |series=Collection points |year=1981 |publisher=Calman-Lévy |oclc=634100022}}

• {{cite book |last1=Rayski |first1=Adam |last2=Bédarida |first2=François |last3=Sayers |first3=Will |title=The Choice of the Jews Under Vichy: Between Submission and Resistance |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uKRtAAAAMAAJ |year=2005 |publisher=University of Notre Dame Press |isbn=978-0-268-04021-5 |oclc=954784575 |author4=United States Holocaust Memorial Museum |ref={{harvid|Rayski|2005}} |quote=...on 3 October, Vichy promulgated the 'Law Concerning the Status of Jews,' signed by Pétain and the principal members of his government.}}

• {{cite book |language=en |editor1-last=Dalinger |editor1-first=Brigitte |editor2-last=Zangl |editor2-first=Veronika |title=Theater unter NS-Herrschaft: Theatre under Pressure |trans-title=Theatre under NS rule: Theatre under Pressure |last1=Rosenberg |first1=Pnina |chapter=Yiddish Theatre in the camps of the Occupied Zone |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BVxtDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA297 |page=297 |series=Theater – Film – Medien (Print) #2 |date=10 September 2018 |publisher=V&R Unipress |location=Göttingen |isbn=978-3-8470-0642-8 |oclc=1135506612 |access-date=27 May 2020}}

• {{cite journal |language=fr |last=Sagnac |first=Philippe |title=Les Juifs et la Révolution française (1789–1791) |trans-title=The Jews and the French Revolution |url=https://www.persee.fr/docAsPDF/rhmc_0996-2743_1899_num_1_3_4130.pdf |journal=Revue d'histoire moderne et contemporaine |volume=1 |issue=3 |via=Persée |year=1899 |pages=209–234|doi=10.3406/rhmc.1899.4130 }}

• {{cite book |last=Schor |first=Ralph |title=L'antisémitisme en France dans l'entre-deux-guerres : prélude à Vichy |trans-title=Antisemitism in France between the world wars: prelude to Vichy |publisher=:fr:Éditions Complexe |location=Brussels |series=Historiques 144 |year=2005 |pages= |isbn=2-8048-0050-4 |oclc=907151757}}

• {{cite magazine |lang=fr |last1=Stéphane |first1=Barry |last2=Gualde |first2=Norbert |title=La plus grande épidémie de l'histoire |trans-title=The biggest epidemic in history |url=https://www.lhistoire.fr/la-plus-grande-%C3%A9pid%C3%A9mie-de-lhistoire |url-access=subscription |magazine=L'Histoire |issue=310 |date=June 2006 |page=47}}

• {{cite book |last=Tombs |first=Robert |title=France 1814–1914 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yTagBAAAQBAJ&pg=PT475 |series=Longman history of France |year=2014 |publisher=Routledge |location=Oxfordshire |isbn=978-1-317-87143-9 |oclc=903960081}}

• {{Cite encyclopedia |author= |title=Algeria Virtual Jewish History Tour |date=8 March 2021 |url=https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/algeria-virtual-jewish-history-tour |encyclopedia=Jewish Virtual Library |url-status=dead |publisher=Gale Group |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210308180337/http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/algeria-virtual-jewish-history-tour |archive-date=8 March 2021 |ref={{harvid|VJL|2021}}}}

• {{cite book |author=Voltaire |title=Collection complette des oeuvres de Mr. de Voltaire: Suite des mélanges de littérature, d'histoire et de philosophie. |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uJ4OAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA5 |volume=5 |year=1764 |publisher=Cramer |chapter=61 Des Juifs |pages=5–22}}

• {{cite book |language=fr |author=Voltaire |title=Oeuvres complètes de Voltaire: Dictionnaire philosophique |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1FxJAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA144 |year=1821 |publisher=Carez, Thomine et Fortic |quote=Vous etes des animaux calculants; tachez d'etre des animaux pensants.}}

• {{cite book |language=fr |author=Voltaire |editor=AJQ Beuchot |title=Œuvres de Voltaire, avec préfaces, avertissements, notes, etc. Par M. Beuchot Dictionnaire Philosophique, Tome V. |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NEonc3e7wYgC&pg=PA493 |volume=XXX |year=1829 |publisher=Lefèvre; Firmin Didot frères |chapter=Juifs |pages=446–493}}
• {{cite book |last=Yahil |first=Leni |year=1990 |title=The Holocaust: The Fate of European Jewry, 1932–1945 |url=https://archive.org/details/holocaustfateofe0000yahi |url-access=registration |publisher=Oxford University Press |place=New York |isbn=0195045238}}

• {{citation |last=Zuccotti |first=Susan |title=The Holocaust, the French, and the Jews |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=M97m1tD272UC&pg=PA81 |year=1999 |publisher=U of Nebraska Press |location=Lincoln, Nebraska |isbn=0-8032-9914-1 |chapter=5 Roundups and Deportations |page=81 |access-date=25 May 2020}}

{{refend}}

• {{cite book |last1=Adams |first1=Jonathan |last2=Heß |first2=Cordelia |title=The Medieval Roots of Antisemitism: Continuities and Discontinuities from the Middle Ages to the Present Day |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2M1JDwAAQBAJ |year=2018 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |isbn=978-1-351-12080-7 |ref={{harvid|Adams|Hess|2018}}}}

• {{cite book |last=Bell |first=Dorian |title=Globalizing Race: Antisemitism and Empire in French and European Culture |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6URKDwAAQBAJ |date= 2018 |publisher=Northwestern University Press |isbn=978-0-8101-3690-8}}

• {{cite book |language=fr |last=Bensoussan |first=Georges |title=Le nouvel antisémitisme en France |trans-title=The new antisemitism in France |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OoSBtgEACAAJ |year=2018 |publisher=Albin Michel |isbn=978-2-226-43615-3}}

• {{cite book |last=Birnbaum |first=Pierre |title=Anti-semitism in France: A Political History from Léon Blum to the Present |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KG19QgAACAAJ |year=1992 |publisher=B. Blackwell |isbn=978-1-55786-047-7}}

• {{cite book |last1=Brustein |first1=William I. |title=Roots of Hate: Anti-Semitism in Europe Before the Holocaust |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Hc3HabBQsdsC |year= 2003 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-77478-9}}

• {{cite book |last=Chazan |first=Robert |title=Medieval Stereotypes and Modern Antisemitism |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wS0aiM0f7sYC |year=1997 |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0-520-91740-8}}

• {{cite book |last=Curtis |first=Michael |title=Verdict on Vichy: Power and Prejudice in the Vichy France Regime |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DjyCDwAAQBAJ |year=2015 |publisher=Arcade |isbn=978-1-62872-481-3}}

• {{cite book |language=fr |last=Draï |first=Raphaël |title=Sous le signe de Sion: l'antisémitisme nouveau est arrivé |trans-title=Under the sign of Zion |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yuFtAAAAMAAJ |year=2001 |publisher=Michalon |isbn=978-2-84186-161-3}}

• {{cite book |language=fr |last=Giniewski |first=Paul |title=Antisionisme, le nouvel antisémitisme |trans-title=Antizionism, the new antisemitism |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Joa4BV7kvrYC |year=2005 |publisher=Editions Cheminements |isbn=978-2-84478-353-0}}

• {{cite book |last=Jackson |first=Julian |title=France: The Dark Years, 1940–1944 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xtLSly2RN2wC |date=5 March 2003 |publisher=OUP Oxford |isbn=978-0-19-162288-5}}

• {{cite book |last=Jordan |first=William Chester |title=The French Monarchy and the Jews: From Philip Augustus to the Last Capetians |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lVQrEAAAQBAJ |year=2016 |publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press |isbn=978-1-5128-0532-1}}

• {{cite book |last=Kalman |first=Julie |title=Rethinking Antisemitism in Nineteenth-Century France |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XuhfPgAACAAJ |year= 2009 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-89732-7}}

• {{cite book |last=Lazare |first=Bernard |title=Antisemitism, Its History and Causes |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IL02AAAAMAAJ |year=1903 |publisher=International Library Publishing Company}}

• {{cite book |last=Lee |first=Daniel |title=Pétain's Jewish Children: French Jewish Youth and the Vichy Regime |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pdJFAwAAQBAJ |year=2014 |publisher=OUP Oxford |isbn=978-0-19-870715-8}}

• {{cite book |last=MacShane |first=Denis |title=Globalising Hatred: The New Antisemitism |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gCA4AgAAQBAJ |year=2008 |publisher=Orion Publishing Group |isbn=978-0-297-85747-1}}

• {{cite book |last=Mandel |first=Maud S. |title=Muslims and Jews in France: History of a Conflict |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=S3CYDwAAQBAJ |year=2016 |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=978-0-691-17350-4}}

• {{cite book |last1=Marcus |first1=Jacob R. |last2=Saperstein |first2=Marc |title=The Jews in Christian Europe: A Source Book, 315–1791 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1uJ8DwAAQBAJ |year= 2016 |publisher=Hebrew Union College Press |isbn=978-0-8229-8123-7}}

• {{cite book |last=Mehlman |first=Jeffrey |title=Legacies of Anti-semitism in France |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hoLTFXzJ4y8C |year=1983 |publisher=U of Minnesota Press |isbn=978-0-8166-1178-2}}

• {{cite book |last1=Michael |first1=Robert |last2=Rosen |first2=Philip |title=Dictionary of Antisemitism from the Earliest Times to the Present |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=d5927rY-UgoC |year=2007 |publisher=Scarecrow Press |isbn=978-0-8108-5868-8}}

• {{cite book |last=Michael |first=R. |title=A History of Catholic Antisemitism: The Dark Side of the Church |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8ZnFAAAAQBAJ |year= 2008 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-0-230-61117-7}}

• {{cite web |last=Miedzian |first=Myriam |title=Anti-French Stereotypes Still Served Up |url=https://www.huffpost.com/entry/antifrench-stereotypes-st_b_36460 |website=Huffpost |date=15 December 2006 |access-date=7 July 2021}}

• {{cite book |last=Roberts |first=Sophie B. |title=Citizenship and Antisemitism in French Colonial Algeria, 1870–1962 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=y6o_DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA59 |year= 2017 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=New York |isbn=978-1-107-18815-0 |oclc=987711623}}

• {{cite book |last=Rose |first=Paul Lawrence |title=German Question/Jewish Question: Revolutionary Antisemitism in Germany from Kant to Wagner |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UhwABAAAQBAJ |year=2014 |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=978-1-4008-6111-8}}

• {{cite book |last=Rosenfeld |first=Alvin H. |title=Deciphering the New Antisemitism |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ibfkCgAAQBAJ |year= 2015 |publisher=Indiana University Press |isbn=978-0-253-01869-4}}

• {{cite book |last=Samuels |first=Maurice |title=The Right to Difference: French Universalism and the Jews |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zagXDQAAQBAJ |year=2016 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |isbn=978-0-226-39932-4}}

• {{cite book |last=Shields |first=James |title=The Extreme Right in France: From Pétain to Le Pen |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7eGJAgAAQBAJ |year=2007 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-134-86111-8}}

• {{cite book |last=Sternhell |first=Zeev |title=Antisemitism and the Right in France |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yeRtAAAAMAAJ |year=1988 |publisher=Shazar Library, Institute of Contemporary Jewry, Vidal Sassoon International Center for the Study of Antisemitism, Hebrew University of Jerusalem}}

• {{cite book |last1=Taguieff |first1=Pierre-André |last2=Camiller |first2=Patrick |title=Rising from the Muck: The New Anti-semitism in Europe |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IuVtAAAAMAAJ |year=2004 |publisher=Ivan R. Dee |isbn=978-1-56663-571-4}}

• {{cite book |last=Trachtenberg |first=Joshua |title=The Devil and the Jews: The Medieval Conception of the Jew and Its Relation to Modern Antisemitism |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=r8gmAQAAMAAJ |year=1983 |publisher=Jewish Publication Society of America |isbn=978-0-8276-0227-4}}

• {{cite book |last=Weitzmann |first=Marc |title=Hate: The New Brew of an Ancient Poison |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XKeNDwAAQBAJ |year=2019 |publisher=Houghton Mifflin Harcourt |isbn=978-0-544-64964-4}}

• {{cite book |last=Winock |first=Michel |title=Nationalism, Anti-semitism, and Fascism in France |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QiFoQgAACAAJ |year=1998 |publisher=Stanford University Press |isbn=978-0-8047-3287-1}}

• {{cite book |language=fr |last=Winock |first=Michel |title=La France et les juifs: de 1789 à nos jours |trans-title=France and the Jews: From 1789 to the Present |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=i5dtAAAAMAAJ |year=2004 |publisher=Seuil |isbn=978-2-02-060954-8}}

• {{cite document |lang= |title= |last1= |first1= |url= |date= |website= |publisher= |accessdate= |quote= }}
• {{cite journal |language= |last= |first= |last2= |first2= |date= |title= |url= |journal= |publisher= |volume= |issue= |pages= |doi= |access-date= }}

{{Sister project links|auto=1|s=Portal:Hate groups}}

{{Wikisource|has=original text from the 1891 Revue des Deux Mondes|fr|Les Juifs et l'Antisémitisme}}

• [https://web.archive.org/web/20200524032408/https://www.interieur.gouv.fr/Le-ministre/Communiques/Statistiques-2019-des-actes-antireligieux-antisemites-racistes-et-xenophobes 2019 Statistics on antireligious, antisemitic, racist, and xenophobic acts], from the Ministry of the Interior (in French)
• [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3QljPbI0uGI A new anti-Semitism? Why thousands of Jewish citizens are leaving France, PBS NewsHour, 14 Sept 2014]
• [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bXC_5ibQpi4, The State of Antisemitism in France AJC Advocacy Anywhere, American Jewish Committee, 3 February 2022]

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