applied kinesiology

George J. Goodheart, a chiropractor, originated applied kinesiology in 1964{{cite web|url=http://www.time.com/time/innovators_v2/alt_medicine/profile_goodheart.html |title=Innovators - George Goodheart |date=2011-01-13 |access-date=2015-12-17 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110113204846/http://www.time.com/time/innovators_v2/alt_medicine/profile_goodheart.html |archive-date=January 13, 2011 }} and began teaching it to other chiropractors.[http://www.amerchiro.org/pdf/PDR/H-Chiropractic%20Techniques.pdf Chiropractic Techniques.] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060728105451/http://www.amerchiro.org/pdf/PDR/H-Chiropractic%20Techniques.pdf |date=July 28, 2006 }} American Chiropractic Association. An organization of Goodheart Study Group Leaders began meeting in 1973, selected the name "The International College of Applied Kinesiology" (ICAK) in 1974, adopted bylaws in 1975, elected officers in 1975, and "certified" its charter members (called "diplomates") in 1976.[http://www.icak.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=51:john-thie-dc-1973-to-1976&catid=35:history&Itemid=72 John Thie, D.C. – 1973 to 1976] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161203235134/http://www.icak.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=51%3Ajohn-thie-dc-1973-to-1976&catid=35%3Ahistory&Itemid=72 |date=December 3, 2016 }} ICAK now considers 1976 to be the date it was founded and 1973 to be the date that its first chairman took office.[http://www.icak.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=53&Itemid=64 What is the International College of Applied Kinesiology (ICAK)?] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161203235128/http://www.icak.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=53&Itemid=64 |date=December 3, 2016 }}

While this practice is primarily used by chiropractors, AK is also used by many other practitioners of complementary therapy. In 2003, it was the 10th most frequently used chiropractic technique in the United States, with 37.6% of chiropractors employing this method and 12.9% of patients being treated with it.{{Cite book|title=Job Analysis of Chiropractic |year=2005 |page=135 |publisher=National Board of Chiropractic Examiners |url=http://nbce.org/pdfs/job-analysis/chapter_10.pdf |isbn=978-1-884457-05-0 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081217004844/http://nbce.org/pdfs/job-analysis/chapter_10.pdf |archive-date=December 17, 2008 }} Some basic AK-based techniques have also been used by nutritional supplement distributors, including multilevel distributors.{{cite book |publisher=American Cancer Society |title=American Cancer Society Complete Guide to Complementary and Alternative Cancer Therapies |url=https://archive.org/details/americancancerso0000unse |url-access=registration |edition=2nd |year=2009 |isbn=9780944235713 |veditors=Russell J, Rovere A |pages=[https://archive.org/details/americancancerso0000unse/page/160 160–164] |chapter=Applied Kinesiology}}[http://www.quackwatch.org/01QuackeryRelatedTopics/Tests/ak.html Applied Kinesiology: Phony Muscle-Testing for "Allergies" and "Nutrient Deficiencies"] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161011024055/http://www.quackwatch.org/01QuackeryRelatedTopics/Tests/ak.html |date=October 11, 2016 }}, by Stephen Barrett, MD

Applied kinesiology is presented as a system that evaluates structural, chemical, and mental aspects of health by using a method referred to as muscle response testing or manual muscle testing (MMT) alongside conventional diagnostic methods. The essential premise of applied kinesiology, which is not shared by mainstream medical theory, is that every organ dysfunction is accompanied by a weakness in a specific corresponding muscle, known as the "viscerosomatic relationship".{{cite web |url=http://www.icak.com/college/status.shtml |title=Applied Kinesiology Status Statement |access-date=2008-02-13 |publisher=International College of Applied Kinesiology – USA |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080322003013/http://www.icak.com/college/status.shtml |archive-date=2008-03-22 |url-status=dead }} Treatment modalities relied upon by AK practitioners include joint manipulation and mobilization, myofascial, cranial and meridian therapies, clinical nutrition, and dietary counseling.{{cite web|title=What is Applied Kinesiology?|publisher=ICAK-USA|url=http://www.icakusa.com/what.php|access-date=5 December 2007|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071130001429/http://www.icakusa.com/what.php|archive-date=30 November 2007|url-status=dead}}

A manual muscle test in AK is conducted by having the patient use the target muscle or muscle group to resist while the practitioner applies a force. A smooth response is sometimes referred to as a "strong muscle," and a response that was not appropriate is sometimes called a "weak response". This is not a raw test of strength, but rather a subjective evaluation of tension in the muscle and smoothness of response, taken to be indicative of a difference in spindle cell response during contraction. These differences in muscle response are claimed to be indicative of various stresses and imbalances in the body.{{cite journal|title=Applied Kinesiology|journal=Gale Encyclopedia of Alternative Medicine|first=Judith|last=Sims|url=http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_g2603/is_0001/ai_2603000168/pg_1|access-date=2008-02-13 }} A weak muscle test is equated to dysfunction and chemical or structural imbalance or mental stress, indicative of suboptimal functioning.{{cite web|url=http://www.icak.com/college/history.shtml |title=Applied Kinesiology: In Retrospect|access-date=2008-02-13 |publisher=International College of Applied Kinesiology – USA }} {{Dead link|date=October 2010|bot=H3llBot}} It may be suboptimal functioning of the tested target muscle, or a normally optimally functioning muscle can be used as an indicator muscle for other physiological testing. A commonly known and very basic test is the arm-pull-down test, or "Delta test," where the patient resists as the practitioner exerts a downward force on an extended arm.Frost, Robert, Applied Kinesiology: A Training Manual and Reference Book of Basic Principles and Practices', p. 4, North Atlantic Books, 2002. [https://books.google.com/books?id=Bl0BQvU6EfQC available online] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141214082606/https://books.google.com/books?id=Bl0BQvU6EfQC&printsec=frontcover#PPA3,M1 |date=December 14, 2014 }} Proper positioning is paramount to ensure that the muscle in question is isolated or positioned as the prime mover, minimizing interference from adjacent muscle groups.

Nutrient testing is used to examine the response of a patient's various muscles to assorted chemicals. Gustatory and olfactory stimulation are said to alter the outcome of a manual muscle test, with previously weak muscles being strengthened by application of the correct nutritional supplement, and previously strong muscles being weakened by exposure to harmful or imbalancing substances or allergens.{{cite web|url=http://www.intelihealth.com/IH/ihtIH/WSIHW000/8513/34968/358738.html?d=dmtContent |title=Applied Kinesiology |access-date=2008-02-13 |publisher=InteliHealth |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071016185021/http://intelihealth.com/IH/ihtIH/WSIHW000/8513/34968/358738.html?d=dmtContent |archive-date=2007-10-16 }} Though its use is deprecated by the ICAK,{{cite web |url=http://www.icak.com/about/icak_faq.shtml |title=International College of Applied Kinesiology – FAQ |access-date=2008-02-13 |publisher=International College of Applied Kinesiology – USA |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070829110654/http://www.icak.com/about/icak_faq.shtml |archive-date=2007-08-29 |url-status=dead }} stimulation to test muscle response to a certain chemical is also done by contact or proximity (for instance, testing while the patient holds a bottle of pills).

Therapy localization is another diagnostic technique using manual muscle testing, which is unique to applied kinesiology. The patient places a hand that is not being tested on the skin over an area suspected to need therapeutic attention. This fingertip contact may lead to a change in muscle response from strong to weak or vice versa when therapeutic intervention is indicated. If the area touched is not associated with a need for such intervention, the muscle response is unaffected.

In 2015 the Australian Government's Department of Health published the results of a review of alternative therapies that sought to determine if any were suitable for being covered by health insurance; applied kinesiology was one of 17 therapies evaluated for which no clear evidence of effectiveness was found.{{cite web |url=http://www.health.gov.au/internet/main/publishing.nsf/content/0E9129B3574FCA53CA257BF0001ACD11/$File/Natural%20Therapies%20Overview%20Report%20Final%20with%20copyright%2011%20March.pdf |publisher=Australian Government – Department of Health |author=Baggoley C |authorlink= Chris Baggoley|title=Review of the Australian Government Rebate on Natural Therapies for Private Health Insurance |year=2015 |page=83 |quote=The effectiveness of kinesiology in improving health outcomes in people with a specific clinical condition is unknown. There is insufficient evidence from SRs within this field to reach any conclusion regarding the effectiveness, safety, quality, or cost-effectiveness of kinesiology. |access-date=12 December 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160626024750/http://www.health.gov.au/internet/main/publishing.nsf/Content/0E9129B3574FCA53CA257BF0001ACD11/$File/Natural%20Therapies%20Overview%20Report%20Final%20with%20copyright%2011%20March.pdf |archive-date=26 June 2016 |df=dmy-all }}

• {{lay source |template=cite web |author=Gavura, S. |date=19 November 2015 |title=Australian review finds no benefit to 17 natural therapies |url=https://www.sciencebasedmedicine.org/australian-review-finds-no-benefit-to-17-natural-therapies |website=Science-Based Medicine}} According to the American Cancer Society, "available scientific evidence does not support the claim that applied kinesiology can diagnose or treat cancer or other illness".

A review of several scientific studies of AK-specific procedures and diagnostic tests concluded: "When AK is disentangled from standard orthopedic muscle testing, the few studies evaluating unique AK procedures either refute or cannot support the validity of AK procedures as diagnostic tests. The evidence to date does not support the use of manual muscle testing for the diagnosis of organic disease or pre/subclinical conditions."{{cite journal|title=Disentangling manual muscle testing and applied kinesiology: critique and reinterpretation of a literature review|journal=Chiropractic & Osteopathy|date=August 2007|first=Mitchell|last=Haas|author2=Robert Cooperstein |author3=David Peterson |volume=15|issue=1|page=11|pmid=17716373 |doi=10.1186/1746-1340-15-11|pmc=2000870 |doi-access=free }} Another concluded that "There is little or no scientific rationale for these methods. Results are not reproducible when subject to rigorous testing and do not correlate with clinical evidence of allergy."{{cite journal|title=Unproven techniques in allergy diagnosis|journal=Journal of Investigational Allergology and Clinical Immunology|year=2005|first=B.|last=Wurlich|volume=15|issue=2|pages=86–90|pmid=16047707 }} A double-blind study was conducted by the ALTA Foundation for Sports Medicine Research in Santa Monica, California, and published in the June 1988 Journal of the American Dietetic Association. The study used three experienced AK practitioners and concluded that, "The results of this study indicated that the use of applied kinesiology to evaluate nutrient status is no more useful than random guessing."

Despite more than four decades of review, RCT (randomized, controlled trials) and other evaluative methods, even invested researchers delivered the following opinion:{{cite journal|author=Cuthbert, S C|author2=Goodheart, G J|title=On the reliability and validity of manual muscle testing: a literature review |journal=Chiropractic & Osteopathy |volume=15|issue=1|page=4|date=March 2007|doi=10.1186/1746-1340-15-4|pmc=1847521|pmid=17341308 |doi-access=free }}

One shortcoming is the lack of RCTs to substantiate (or refute) the clinical utility (efficacy, effectiveness) of chiropractic interventions based on MMT findings. Also, because the etiology of a muscle weakness may be multifactorial, any RCT that employs only one mode of therapy to only one area of the body may produce outcomes that are poor due to these limitations.

Nearly all AK tests are subjective, relying solely on practitioner assessment of muscle response. Specifically, some studies have shown test-retest reliability, inter-tester reliability, and accuracy to have no better than chance correlations.{{cite journal|vauthors=Lüdtke R, Kunz B, Seeber N, Ring J|title=Test-retest-reliability and validity of the Kinesiology muscle test|journal=Complement Ther Med|volume=9|issue=3|pages=141–5|date=September 2001 |doi=10.1054/ctim.2001.0455|pmid=11926427}}{{cite journal|title=Psychology and 'Alternative Medicine': the mischief-making of ideomotor action|journal=Scientific Review of Alternative Medicine|year=1999|first=Ray|last=Hyman|volume=3|issue=2|url=http://www.sram.org/0302/ideomotor.html|access-date=2008-02-25|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080210043213/http://www.sram.org/0302/ideomotor.html|archive-date=10 February 2008 |url-status=live}} Some skeptics have argued that there is no scientific understanding of the proposed underlying theory of a viscerosomatic relationship, and the efficacy of the modality is unestablished in some cases and doubtful in others. Skeptics have also dismissed AK as "quackery", "magical thinking", and a misinterpretation of the ideomotor effect.[http://skepdic.com/magicalthinking.html Magical Thinking.] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161121175744/http://skepdic.com/magicalthinking.html |date=November 21, 2016 }} Skeptic's Dictionary It has also been criticized on theoretical and empirical grounds,{{cite journal|url=http://skepdic.com/akinesiology.html|title=Applied Kinesiology|volume=45|issue=3|pages=321–323|access-date=2007-07-26|journal=The Skeptics Dictionary|author=Carroll, Robert Todd "These are empirical claims and have been tested and shown to be false"|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070810143939/http://skepdic.com/akinesiology.html| archive-date=10 August 2007 |url-status=live|doi=10.1016/0022-3913(81)90398-X|year=1981|pmid=6938675}} and characterized as pseudoscience.{{cite journal|author=Atwood KC|title=Naturopathy, Pseudoscience, and Medicine: Myths and Fallacies vs Truth |journal=MedGenMed|volume=6|issue=1|page=33|year=2004|url=http://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/471156|pmc=1140750|pmid=15208545}} With only anecdotal accounts claiming to provide positive evidence for the efficacy of the practice, a review of peer-reviewed studies concluded that the "evidence to date does not support the use of [AK] for the diagnosis of organic disease or pre/subclinical conditions."

In the United States, the American Academy of Allergy, Asthma and Immunology{{cite journal|last=Bernstein|first=IL|title=Allergy diagnostic testing: an updated practice parameter|journal=Annals of Allergy, Asthma & Immunology|date=March 2008|volume=100|issue=3, Supplement 3|pages=S1–148|pmid=18431959|url=http://www.aaaai.org/Aaaai/media/MediaLibrary/PDF%20Documents/Practice%20and%20Parameters/allergydiagnostictesting.pdf|doi=10.1016/S1081-1206(10)60305-5|display-authors=etal}} and the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases{{cite journal|last=Boyce|first=JA|author2=Assa'ad A |author3=Burks AW |title=Guidelines for the diagnosis and management of food allergy in the United States: report of the NIAID-sponsored expert panel.|journal=The Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology|date=December 2010|volume=126|issue=6 Suppl|pages=S1–S58|pmid=21134576|url=http://download.journals.elsevierhealth.com/pdfs/journals/0091-6749/PIIS0091674910015666.pdf|doi=10.1016/j.jaci.2010.10.007|display-authors=etal|pmc=4241964}} have both advised that applied kinesiology should not be used in the diagnosis of allergies. The European Academy of Allergology and Clinical Immunology,{{cite journal|last=Ortolani C|author2=Bruijnzeel-Koomen C |author3=Bengtsson U |title=Controversial aspects of adverse reactions to food. European Academy of Allergology and Clinical Immunology (EAACI) Reactions to Food Subcommittee.|journal=Allergy|date=January 1999|volume=54|issue=1|pages=27–45|doi=10.1034/j.1398-9995.1999.00913.x|pmid=10195356|s2cid=38054021 |display-authors=etal}} the National Institute for Clinical Excellence{{cite journal|last=Centre for Clinical Practice at NICE|title=Food Allergy in Children and Young People: Diagnosis and Assessment of Food Allergy in Children and Young People in Primary Care and Community Settings|journal=NICE Clinical Guidelines|date=February 2011|volume=116|pmid=22259824|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/n/nicecg116/pdf/}}[http://www.nice.org.uk/newsroom/pressreleases/DraftGuidelineOnFoodAllergiesInChildren.jsp NICE consults on draft guideline on food allergies in children] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131020220845/http://www.nice.org.uk/newsroom/pressreleases/DraftGuidelineOnFoodAllergiesInChildren.jsp |date=October 20, 2013 }} of the UK, the Australasian Society of Clinical Immunology and Allergy{{cite web|title=Unorthodox techniques for the diagnosis and treatment of allergy, asthma and immune disorders |date=November 2007 |url=http://www.allergy.org.au/pospapers/unorthodox.htm |publisher=Australasian Society of Clinical Immunology and Allergy |access-date=7 February 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111228204150/http://www.allergy.org.au/pospapers/unorthodox.htm |archive-date=28 December 2011 }} and the Allergy Society of South Africa{{cite journal|last=Motala|first=C|author2=Hawarden, D|title=Guideline: Diagnostic testing in allergy|journal=South African Medical Journal|date=July 2009|volume=99|issue=7|pages=531–535|url=http://www.mm3admin.co.za/documents/docmanager/8e7be0a4-2b8d-453f-875e-cd1e5132b829/00015029.pdf}} has also advised similarly. The World Allergy Organization does not have a formal position on applied kinesiology, but in educational materials from its Global Resources In Allergy program, it lists applied kinesiology as an unproven test and describes it as useless.{{cite web|title=Global Resources in Allergy (GLORIA) - Module 6: Food Allergy|url=http://www.worldallergy.org/educational_programs/gloria/slides/international/Module6_Food_Allergy.ppt|publisher=World Allergy Organization|access-date=29 February 2012|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110104221036/http://www.worldallergy.org/educational_programs/gloria/slides/international/Module6_Food_Allergy.ppt|archive-date=4 January 2011}} In 1998, a small pilot study published in the International Journal of Neuroscience showed a correlation between applied kinesiology muscle testings and serum immunoglobulin levels for food allergies. In it, 19 of 21 (90.5%) suspected food allergies diagnosed by applied kinesiology were confirmed by serum immunoglobulin tests.{{cite journal | pmid = 10069623 | volume=96 | issue=3–4 | title=Correlation of applied kinesiology muscle testing findings with serum immunoglobulin levels for food allergies | date=December 1998 | pages=237–44 | journal=Int. J. Neurosci. | doi=10.3109/00207459808986471 | last1 = Schmitt | first1 = WH | last2 = Leisman | first2 = G| s2cid=24434067 }} A follow-up review published in 2005 in the Current Opinion of Allergy and Clinical Immunology concluded applied kinesiology had no proven basis for diagnosis.{{cite journal|title=Food allergy diagnostics: scientific and unproven procedures |journal=Curr Opin Allergy Clin Immunol |pmid=15864086 | volume=5|issue=3 |date=June 2005|pages=261–6 | last1 = Beyer | first1 = K | last2 = Teuber | first2 = SS | doi=10.1097/01.all.0000168792.27948.f9|s2cid=72156088 }}

According to the American Chiropractic Association, in 2003, applied kinesiology was the 10th most frequently used chiropractic technique in the United States, with 37.6% of chiropractors employing this method and 12.9% of patients being treated with it. They describe AK as follows:

{{Quote|This is an approach to chiropractic treatment in which several specific procedures may be combined. Diversified/manipulative adjusting techniques may be used with nutritional interventions, together with light massage of various points referred to as neurolymphatic and neurovascular points. Clinical decision-making is often based on testing and evaluating muscle strength.}}

According to a March 26, 1998, letter from the DKF (Dansk Kiropraktor Forening – Danish Chiropractic Association), following public complaints from patients receiving homeopathic care and/or AK instead of standard (DKF-defined) chiropractic care, the DKF has determined that applied kinesiology is not a form of chiropractic care and must not be presented to the public as such. AK and homeopathy can continue to be practiced by chiropractors as long as it is noted to be alternative and adjunctive to chiropractic care and is not performed in a chiropractic clinic. Chiropractors may not infer or imply that the Danish chiropractic profession endorses AK to be legitimate or effective, nor may the word/title chiropractic/chiropractor be used or associated with the practice of AK.[https://web.archive.org/web/20071016185610/http://chiro.org/chiro-list/newsfile/ak-test.txt Danish Chiropractic Association position]

• Ideomotor effect
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• List of topics characterized as pseudoscience
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• Observer-expectancy effect
• Facilitated Communication

{{Reflist|2}}

• [https://web.archive.org/web/20060714195954/http://www.kinmed.com/ The International Journal of Applied Kinesiology and Kinesiologic Medicine]

• [http://www.quackwatch.org/01QuackeryRelatedTopics/Tests/ak.html Applied Kinesiology: Muscle-Testing for "Allergies" and "Nutrient Deficiencies"] by Stephen Barrett, Quackwatch
• [http://www.ncahf.org/articles/a-b/ak.html Applied Kinesiology] by William T. Jarvis, The National Council Against Health Fraud
• [http://www.randi.org/encyclopedia/applied%20kinesiology.html Applied kinesiology] James Randi Educational Foundation, An Encyclopedia of Claims, Frauds, and Hoaxes of the Occult and Supernatural
• [http://www.sram.org/0302/ideomotor.html The Mischief-Making of Ideomotor Action] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080210043213/http://www.sram.org/0302/ideomotor.html |date=2008-02-10 }} by Ray Hyman, The Scientific Review of Alternative Medicine
• [http://www.ntskeptics.org/2003/2003february/february2003.htm#foolishness Applied Foolishness] by John Blanton, The North Texas Skeptics
• [https://web.archive.org/web/20071016185021/http://intelihealth.com/IH/ihtIH/WSIHW000/8513/34968/358738.html?d=dmtContent InteliHealth applied kinesiology article material] was reviewed by the Faculty of the Harvard Medical School with final editing approved by Natural Standard.
• [https://web.archive.org/web/20101005141713/http://ankerberg.org/Articles/_PDFArchives/new-age/NA4W0300.pdf Muscle Testing] by John Ankerberg and John Weldon, The Encyclopedia of New Age Beliefs
• {{citation |url= http://www.watchman.org/na/namedak.htm |title= Testing Muscle Testing: Applied Kinesiology |first= James |last= Walker |work= The Watchman Expositor |volume= 9 |issue= 7 |year= 1992 |publisher= Watchman Fellowship ministry }}
• [https://web.archive.org/web/20030402064527/http://www.hcrc.org/contrib/lyons/kinesiol.html Applied Kinesiology and Nutritional Muscle Response Testing: A Christian Perspective] by Janice Lyons
• [https://web.archive.org/web/20070213081246/http://altmed.creighton.edu/apk/ Applied Kinesiology] By Nicholas Brewer, 2006
• [http://users.adam.com.au/bstett/SkepticsKinesiology68.htm Applied Kinesiology] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210308232627/http://users.adam.com.au/bstett/SkepticsKinesiology68.htm |date=2021-03-08 }} by Harry Edwards, A Skeptic's Guide to the New Age

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Category:Alternative medical diagnostic methods

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