ash

Ash occurs naturally from any fire that burns vegetation, and may disperse in the soil to fertilise it, or clump under it for long enough to carbonise into coal.

{{see also|Ash (chemistry)|Plasma ashing}}

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The composition of the ash varies depending on the product burned and its origin. The "ash content" or "mineral content" of a product is derived its incineration under temperatures ranging from {{convert|150|C|F}} to {{convert|900|C|F}}.

{{main|Wood ash}}

The composition of ash derived from wood and other plant matter varies based on plant species, parts of the plants (such as bark, trunk, or young branches with foliage), the type of soil, and the time of year. The composition of these ashes also differs greatly depending on the mode of combustion.

Wood ashes, in addition to residual carbonaceous materials (unconsumed embers, activated carbons impregnated with carbonaceous particles, tars, various gases, etc.), contain between 20% and 50% calcium in the form of calcium oxide and are generally rich in potassium carbonate. Ashes derived from grasses, and the Gramineae family in particular, are rich in silica.{{cite book |last1=Pépin |first1=Denis |title=Composts et paillis: pour un jardin sain, facile et productif |publisher= Terre vivante |year=2013 |page=54 |isbn=978-2360980918 }} The color of the ash comes from small proportions of inorganic minerals such as iron oxides and manganese. The oxidized metal elements that constitute wood ash are mostly considered alkaline.

For example, ash collected from wood boilers is composed of{{cite web |url=http://www.ademe.fr/sites/default/files/assets/documents/20140523_fiche-cendre-agriculture-petite-chaufferie.pdf |title=Gestion et valorisation de cendres de chaufferies bois |language=French |trans-title=Management and recovery of wood boiler ashes |last1=Couturier |first1=Christian |last2=Brasset |first2=Thierry |publisher=Agence de l'Environnement et de la Maîtrse de l'Energie |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150115192130/http://www.ademe.fr/sites/default/files/assets/documents/20140523_fiche-cendre-agriculture-petite-chaufferie.pdf#federation=archive.wikiwix.com&tab=url |archivedate=2015-01-15 |access-date=2024-06-24 |url-status=dead }}

• 17–33% calcium in the form of calcium oxide ({{chem2|CaO}})
• 2–6% potassium in the form of potassium oxide ({{chem2|K2O}})
• 2.5–4.6% magnesium in the form of magnesium oxide ({{chem2|MgO}})
• 1–6% phosphorus in the form of phosphorus pentoxide ({{chem2|P2O5}})
• 3% in total of oxides such as iron oxide, manganese oxide, and sodium oxide

The pH of the ash is between 10 and 13, mostly due to the fact that the oxides of calcium, potassium, and sodium are strong bases. Acidic components such as carbon dioxide, phosphoric acid, silicic acid, and sulfuric acid are rarely present and, in the presence of the previously mentioned bases, are generally found in the form of salts, respectively carbonates, phosphates, silicates and sulphates.

Strictly speaking, calcium and potassium salts produce the aforementioned calcium oxide (also known as quicklime) and potassium during the combustion of organic matter. But, in practice, quicklime is only obtained via lime-kiln, and potash (from potassium carbonate) or baking soda (from sodium carbonate) is extracted from the ashes.

Other substances such as sulfur, chlorine, iron or sodium only appear in small quantities. Still others are rarely found in wood, such as aluminum, zinc, and boron. (depending on the trace elements drawn from the soil by the incinerated plants).

Mineral content in ash depends on the species of tree burned, even in the same soil conditions. More chloride is found in conifer trees than broadleaf trees, with seven times as much found in spruces than in oak trees. There is twice as much phosphoric acid in the European aspen than in oaks and twice as much magnesium in elm trees than in the Scotch pine.

Ash composition also varies by which part of the tree was burnt. Silicon and calcium salts are more abundant in bark than in wood, while potassium salts are primarily found in wood. Compositional variation also occurred based on the season in which the tree died.

Cremation ashes, also called cremated remains or "cremains," are the bodily remains left from cremation.{{cite web |title=What Are Cremains? (& What to Do with Them) |url=https://www.usurnsonline.com/cremation/cremains/ |website=usurnsonline.com|date=31 May 2022 }} They often take the form of a grey powder resembling coarse sand. While often referred to as ashes, the remains primarily consist of powdered bone fragments due to the cremation process, which eliminates the body's organic materials.{{cite web |title=Education {{!}} Cremation ashes |url=https://www.lonite.ca/education/cremation-ashes.html |website=www.lonite.ca}} People often store these ashes in containers like urns, although they are also sometimes buried or scattered in specific locations.{{cite web |title=What To Do With Cremated Remains |url=https://www.cremation.com/cremation-memorialization/10-things-to-do-with-cremated-remains/ |website=cremation.com |access-date=25 June 2023}}

In food processing, mineral and ash content is used to characterize the presence of organic and inorganic components in food for monitoring quality, nutritional quantification and labeling, analyzing microbiological stability, and more.{{cite web |url=https://people.umass.edu/~mcclemen/581Ash&Minerals.html |title=Analysis of Ash and Minerals |last=McClements |first=D. Julian |work=Analysis of Food Products Lectures |accessdate=2024-06-15 }} This process can be used to measure minerals like calcium, sodium, potassium, and phosphorus as well as metal content such as lead, mercury, cadmium, and aluminum.

{{See also|Chinese festivals|Hanyi Festival}}

File:HK Sheung Wan Wing Lok Street fire burning offering papers Chinese style December 2018 IX2 02.jpg ash. With wind and dispersion, the size of particulates decreases, while the number of particles increases.]]

Analysis of the contents of ash samples from Vietnam{{cite journal | doi=10.1016/j.matpr.2020.08.686 | title=Heavy metals emissions from joss paper burning rituals and the air quality around a specific incinerator | year=2021 | last1=Giang | first1=Lam Van | last2=Thanh | first2=Tran | last3=Hien | first3=Truong Thanh | last4=Tan | first4=Lam Van | last5=Thi Bich Phuong | first5=Tran | last6=Huu Loc | first6=Ho | journal=Materials Today: Proceedings | volume=38 | pages=2751–2757 | s2cid=226353498 | doi-access=free }} and Singapore{{Cite journal |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/280221481 |doi=10.1039/C5EM00312A |title=Annual air pollution caused by the Hungry Ghost Festival |year=2015 |last1=Khezri |first1=B. |last2=Chan |first2=Y. Y. |last3=Tiong |first3=L. Y. D. |last4=Webster |first4=R. D. |journal=Environmental Science: Processes & Impacts |volume=17 |issue=9 |pages=1578–1586 |pmid=26220212 |hdl=10356/82684 |hdl-access=free }} shows that joss paper burning can emit many pollutants detrimental to air quality. There is a significant amount of heavy metals in the dust fume and bottom ash, e.g., aluminium, iron, manganese, copper, lead, zinc and cadmium.

"Burning of joss paper accounted for up to 42% of the atmospheric rBC [refractory black carbon] mass, higher than traffic (14-17%), crop residue (10-17%), coal (18-20%) during the Hanyi festival in northwest China", according to a 2022 study, "the overall air quality can be worsened due to the practice of uncontrolled burning of joss paper during the festival, which is not just confined to the people who do the burning," and "burning joss paper during worship activities is common in China and most Asian countries with similar traditions."{{cite journal |vauthors=Lin C, Huang RJ, Duan J, Zhong H, Xu W, Wu Y, Zhang R |title=Large contribution from worship activities to the atmospheric soot particles in northwest China |journal=Environ Pollut |volume=299 |issue= |pages=118907 |date=April 2022 |pmid=35091017 |doi=10.1016/j.envpol.2022.118907 |bibcode=2022EPoll.29918907L |url=}}

The composition of joss paper ash largely depends on the types / composition of the joss paper goods being burnt, and there are many of them.

{{main|Slash-and-burn}}

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High levels of heavy metals, including lead, arsenic, cadmium, and copper were found in the ash debris following the 2007 Californian wildfires. A national clean-up campaign was organised ...{{cite journal |vauthors=Finlay SE, Moffat A, Gazzard R, Baker D, Murray V |title=Health impacts of wildfires |journal= PLOS Currents|volume=4 |issue= |pages=e4f959951cce2c |date=November 2012 |pmid=23145351 |pmc=3492003 |doi=10.1371/4f959951cce2c |doi-broken-date=1 November 2024 |doi-access=free }} In the devastating California Camp Fire (2018) that killed 85 people, lead levels increased by around 50 times in the hours following the fire at a site nearby (Chico). Zinc concentration also increased significantly in Modesto, 150 miles away. Heavy metals such as manganese and calcium were found in numerous California fires as well.{{cite web |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2021/jul/21/wildfire-smoke-air-hazardous-toxic-metals-study-california |title=Wildfire smoke can increase hazardous toxic metals in air, study finds | Climate crisis | The Guardian|date=21 July 2021 }}

• Ashes from
• Stubble burning
• Open burning of waste
• Cigarette or cigar ash
• Incinerator bottom ash, a form of ash produced in incinerators
• Products of coal combustion
• Bottom ash
• Fly ash
• Volcanic ash, ash that consists of fragmented glass, rock, and minerals that appears during an eruption.
• Wood ash

{{See also|Particulates}}

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{{see also|Particle number|Surface-area-to-volume ratio}}

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{{main|Global distillation}}

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{{seealso|Humus}}

Ashes have been used since the Neolithic period as fertilizer because they are rich in minerals, especially potash and essential nutrients. They are the main fertilizer in slash-and-burn agriculture, which eventually evolved into controlled burn and forest clearing practices. People in ancient history already possessed extensive knowledge of the nutrients produced by (from social 10th textbook)(manufacturing industries) different ashes.Sobrado Correa, H. (2004). La fertilisation des terres dans la Galice de l'Ancien Régime (xviie-xixe siècle). Histoire & Sociétés Rurales, 21, 39-72. https://doi.org/10.3917/hsr.021.0039 For clay soil in particular, using ash without modification or using {{lang|fr|charrée}}, ash whose minerals have been washed with water, was necessary.

Because ashes contain potash, they can be used to make biodegradable laundry detergent. The demand for organic products has led to renewed interest for laundry using ash derived from wood.[http://www.manaterra.org/asso/archives/665 La lessive à la cendre, faite maison] The French word for laundry {{lang|fr|lessive}} is from the Latin word {{lang|la|lixivia}}, which means a substance made from ash and used to wash laundry. This usage also developed into a small, traditional architectural structure to the west of Rhône mainstem: the {{lang|fr|bugadière}}, a masonry structure built with stone or cob, that looks like a cabinet and that carries dirty laundry and fireplace ash; when the {{lang|fr|bugadière}} is full, the laundry and ash are moved to a laundry container and boiled in water.

Laundry using ash derived from wood has the benefit of being free, easy to produce, sustainable, and as efficient as standard laundry washing methods.

{{main|Particulates#Health effects}}

{{Further|Wildfire#Airborne hazards|Joss paper#Health impact|Brain health and pollution|Heavy metals}}

{{see also|Cough|Lead poisoning|Health impacts of sawdust}}

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{{main|Cloud condensation nuclei}}

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"Particles of dust or smoke in the atmosphere are essential for precipitation. These particles, called 'condensation nuclei,' provide a surface for water vapor to condense upon. This helps water droplets gather together and become large enough to fall to the earth which might affect the quality of our water if not for filters."{{cite web | title=Precipitation | website=National Geographic | date=19 Oct 2023 | url=https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/precipitation/ | access-date=19 Aug 2024}}

{{see also|Wildfire#Carbon_dioxide and other emissions from fires}}

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• Aerosol
• Ash (analytical chemistry)
• Black carbon
• Carbon, basic component of ashes
• Carbon black
• Charcoal, carbon residue after heating wood mainly used as traditional fuel
• Cinereous, consisting of ashes, ash-colored or ash-like
• Coal, consisting of carbon as ash, and ash can be converted into coal
• Construction waste
• Dust | Fugitive dust
• Potash, a term for many useful potassium salts that traditionally derived from plant ashes, but today are typically mined from underground deposits

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Category:Combustion