aspergillus

{{main|List of Aspergillus species}}

In March 2010, Aspergillus covered 837 species of fungi.{{cite journal | vauthors = Hawksworth DL | title = Naming Aspergillus species: progress towards one name for each species | journal = Medical Mycology | volume = 49 Suppl 1 | issue = S1 | pages = S70-6 | date = April 2011 | pmid = 20718610 | doi = 10.3109/13693786.2010.504753 | doi-access = free }} Notable species placed in Aspergillus include:

• Aspergillus flavus is a notable plant pathogen impacting crop yields and a common cause of aspergillosis.
• Aspergillus fumigatus is the most common cause of aspergillosis in individuals with an immunodeficiency.
• Aspergillus nidulans has seen heavy use as research organism in cell biology.
• Aspergillus niger is used in the chemical industry for a variety of applications, while also being a known food contaminant and a possible pathogen to humans.
• Aspergillus oryzae and A. sojae are used in East Asian cuisine in the production of sake, soy sauce and other fermented food products.
• Aspergillus terreus is used in the production of organic acids but can also cause opportunistic infections in humans.

The expansive genus Aspergillus is currently divided into six subgenera of which many are further split into a total of 27 sections.{{cite journal |vauthors=Houbraken J, Kocsubé S, Visagie CM, Yulmaz N, Wang XC, Meijer M, Kraak B, Hubka V, Bensch K, Samson RA, Frisvad JC |title=Classification of Aspergillus, Penicillium, Talaromyces and related genera (Eurotiales): An overview of families, genera, subgenera, sections, series and species |journal=Studies in Mycology |year=2020 |volume=95 |pages=5–169 |doi= 10.1016/j.simyco.2020.05.002|pmid=32855739 |pmc=7426331 }}

• Subgenus Circumdati, divided in 10 sections. Linked to former teleomorphic genera Petromyces, Neopetromyces and Fennellia.
• Subgenus Nidulantes, divided in 9 sections. Linked to former teleomorphic genus Emericella.
• Subgenus Fumigati, divided in 4 sections. Linked to former teleomorphic genus Neocarpenteles, Neosartorya and Dichotomomyces.
• Subgenus Aspergillus, divided in 2 sections. Linked to former teleomorphic genus Eurotium.
• Subgenus and section Cremei. Linked to former teleomorphic genus Chaetosartorya and Cristaspora
• Subgenus and section Polypaecilum. Includes former genera Polypaecilum and Phialosimplex.

The linkage to former teleomorphic genera derive from Samson et al. (2014).{{Cite journal |last1=Samson |first1=RA |last2=Visagie |first2=CM |last3=Houbraken |first3=J |last4=Hong |first4=SB |last5=Hubka |first5=V |last6=Klaassen |first6=CHW |last7=Perrone |first7=G |last8=Seifert |first8=KA |last9=Susca |first9=A |last10=Tanney |first10=JB |last11=Varga|first11=J|last12=Kocsubé|first12=S|last13=Szigeti|first13=G|last14=Yaguchi|first14=T|last15=Frisvad|first15=JC|date=June 2014 |title=Phylogeny, identification and nomenclature of the genus Aspergillus |journal=Studies in Mycology |volume=78 |pages=141–173 |doi=10.1016/j.simyco.2014.07.004|doi-access=free |pmid=25492982 |pmc=4260807 }} The current division is based on Houbracken et al. (2020), which also notes that the former teleomorphic genera are now understood as morphotypes: eurotium-type, neosartorya-type, emericella-type, petromyces-type, chaetosartorya-type, fennellia-type and neopetromyces-type.

Aspergillus is defined as a group of conidial fungi—that is, fungi in an asexual state. Some of them, however, are known to have a teleomorph (sexual state) in the Ascomycota. With DNA evidence, all members of the genus Aspergillus are members of the phylum Ascomycota.{{cn|date=November 2023}}

Members of the genus possess the ability to grow where a high osmotic pressure exists (high concentration of sugar, salt, etc.). Aspergillus species are highly aerobic and are found in almost all oxygen-rich environments, where they commonly grow as molds on the surface of a substrate, as a result of the high oxygen tension. Commonly, fungi grow on carbon-rich substrates like monosaccharides (such as glucose) and polysaccharides (such as amylose). Aspergillus species are common contaminants of starchy foods (such as bread and potatoes), and grow in or on many plants and trees.{{citation needed|date=May 2013}}

In addition to growth on carbon sources, many species of Aspergillus demonstrate oligotrophy where they are capable of growing in nutrient-depleted environments, or environments with a complete lack of key nutrients. Aspergillus niger is a prime example of this; it can be found growing on damp walls, as a major component of mildew.{{cn|date=November 2023}}

Several species of Aspergillus, including A. niger and A. fumigatus, will readily colonise buildings,{{cite journal | vauthors = Latgé JP | title = Aspergillus fumigatus and aspergillosis | journal = Clinical Microbiology Reviews | volume = 12 | issue = 2 | pages = 310–50 | date = April 1999 | pmid = 10194462 | pmc = 88920 | doi = 10.1128/CMR.12.2.310 }} favouring warm and damp or humid areas such as bathrooms and around window frames.{{cite web |title=What are fungal spores? |url=https://www.worcester.ac.uk/about/academic-schools/school-of-science-and-the-environment/science-and-the-environment-research/national-pollen-and-aerobiology-research-unit/What-are-fungal-spores.aspx |website=University of Worcester |access-date=6 August 2019}}

Aspergillus are found in millions of pillows.{{cite web |url=https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2005/10/051015093046.htm |title=Pillows: A Hot Bed Of Fungal Spores |website=Science Daily |access-date=2017-05-08 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171008030314/https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2005/10/051015093046.htm |archive-date=2017-10-08 |url-status=live }}

Image:Ascomycetes.jpg culture]]

File:Modell von Aspergillus (Gießkannenschimmel) -Osterloh- -Brendel 10f-.jpg]]

Species of Aspergillus are important medically and commercially. Some species can cause infection in humans and other animals. Some infections found in animals have been studied for years, while other species found in animals have been described as new and specific to the investigated disease, and others have been known as names already in use for organisms such as saprophytes. More than 60 Aspergillus species are medically relevant pathogens.{{cite book| vauthors = Thom C, Church M |title=The Aspergilli|location=Baltimore|publisher=The Williams & Wilkins Company|year=1926}} For humans, a range of diseases such as infection to the external ear, skin lesions, and ulcers classed as mycetomas are found.{{cn|date=November 2023}}

Other species are important in commercial microbial fermentations. For example, alcoholic beverages such as Japanese sake are often made from rice or other starchy ingredients (like manioc), rather than from grapes or malted barley. Typical microorganisms used to make alcohol, such as yeasts of the genus Saccharomyces, cannot ferment these starches. Therefore, koji mold such as Aspergillus oryzae is used to first break down the starches into simpler sugars.{{cite web |vauthors = Spiegel A |website=The Huffington Post |quote=...to make soy sauce, first you add aspergillus mold to the soy beans and grains to produce a mixture called koji. |date=April 8, 2014 |title=Are You Using The Right Soy Sauce? Here's How To Find Out |url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2014/04/08/soy-sauce_n_5105861.html |access-date=2017-07-29 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170806131816/http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2014/04/08/soy-sauce_n_5105861.html |archive-date=2017-08-06 |url-status=live }}

Members of the genus are also sources of natural products that can be used in the development of medications to treat human disease.{{Cite patent|country=US|number=6069146|pubdate=2000-05-30|title=Halimide, a cytotoxic marine natural product, and derivatives thereof|assign1=The Regents of the University of California|inventor1-last=Fenical|inventor1-first=William|inventor2-last=Jensen|inventor2-first=Paul R.|inventor3-last=Cheng|inventor3-first=Xing C.}} Aspergillus spp. are known to produce anthraquinone which has commercial importance due to its antibacterial and antifungal properties.{{Cite journal|last1=Toma|first1=Maria Afroz|last2=Nazir|first2=K. H. M. Nazmul Hussain|last3=Mahmud|first3=Md Muket|last4=Mishra|first4=Pravin|last5=Ali|first5=Md Kowser|last6=Kabir|first6=Ajran|last7=Shahid|first7=Md Ahosanul Haque|last8=Siddique|first8=Mahbubul Pratik|last9=Alim|first9=Md Abdul|title=Isolation and Identification of Natural Colorant Producing Soil-Borne Aspergillus niger from Bangladesh and Extraction of the Pigment|journal=Foods|year=2021|language=en|volume=10|issue=6|pages=1280|doi=10.3390/foods10061280|pmid=34205202|pmc=8227025|doi-access=free}}

Perhaps the largest application of Aspergillus niger is as the major source of citric acid; this organism accounts for over 99% of global citric acid production, or more than 1.4 million tonnes (>1.5 million US tons) per year.{{Citation needed|date=April 2010}} A. niger is also commonly used for the production of native and foreign enzymes, including glucose oxidase, lysozyme, and lactase.{{cite web |title=GRAS Notification for Acid Lactase from Aspergillus oryzae Expressed in Aspergillus niger |website=Food and Drug Administration |url=https://www.fda.gov/downloads/Food/IngredientsPackagingLabeling/GRAS/NoticeInventory/UCM400718 |access-date=2016-03-17 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160323100548/https://www.fda.gov/downloads/Food/IngredientsPackagingLabeling/GRAS/NoticeInventory/UCM400718 |archive-date=2016-03-23 |url-status=dead }} Section 2. In these instances, the culture is rarely grown on a solid substrate, although this is still common practice in Japan, but is more often grown as a submerged culture in a bioreactor. In this way, the most important parameters can be strictly controlled, and maximal productivity can be achieved. This process also makes it far easier to separate the chemical or enzyme of importance from the medium, and is therefore far more cost-effective.

Image:Four 3-day old Aspergillus colonies on a Petri dish.png laboratory strain; a similar strain with a mutation in the yA marker gene involved in green pigmentation; an A. oryzae strain used in soy fermentation; A. oryzae RIB40]]

File:Aspergillus 235 mags 3X3 copy.jpeg]]

A. nidulans (Emericella nidulans) has been used as a research organism for many years and was used by Guido Pontecorvo to demonstrate parasexuality in fungi. Recently, A. nidulans was one of the pioneering organisms to have its genome sequenced by researchers at the Broad Institute. As of 2008, a further seven Aspergillus species have had their genomes sequenced: the industrially useful A. niger (two strains), A. oryzae, and A. terreus, and the pathogens A. clavatus, A. fischerianus (Neosartorya fischeri), A. flavus, and A. fumigatus (two strains).{{cite journal | vauthors = Wortman JR, Gilsenan JM, Joardar V, Deegan J, Clutterbuck J, Andersen MR, Archer D, Bencina M, Braus G, Coutinho P, von Döhren H, Doonan J, Driessen AJ, Durek P, Espeso E, Fekete E, Flipphi M, Estrada CG, Geysens S, Goldman G, de Groot PW, Hansen K, Harris SD, Heinekamp T, Helmstaedt K, Henrissat B, Hofmann G, Homan T, Horio T, Horiuchi H, James S, Jones M, Karaffa L, Karányi Z, Kato M, Keller N, Kelly DE, Kiel JA, Kim JM, van der Klei IJ, Klis FM, Kovalchuk A, Krasevec N, Kubicek CP, Liu B, Maccabe A, Meyer V, Mirabito P, Miskei M, Mos M, Mullins J, Nelson DR, Nielsen J, Oakley BR, Osmani SA, Pakula T, Paszewski A, Paulsen I, Pilsyk S, Pócsi I, Punt PJ, Ram AF, Ren Q, Robellet X, Robson G, Seiboth B, van Solingen P, Specht T, Sun J, Taheri-Talesh N, Takeshita N, Ussery D, vanKuyk PA, Visser H, van de Vondervoort PJ, de Vries RP, Walton J, Xiang X, Xiong Y, Zeng AP, Brandt BW, Cornell MJ, van den Hondel CA, Visser J, Oliver SG, Turner G | display-authors = 6 | title = The 2008 update of the Aspergillus nidulans genome annotation: a community effort | journal = Fungal Genetics and Biology | volume = 46 Suppl 1 | issue = 1 | pages = S2-13 | date = March 2009 | pmid = 19146970 | pmc = 2826280 | doi = 10.1016/j.fgb.2008.12.003 | series = 46 }} A. fischerianus is hardly ever pathogenic, but is very closely related to the common pathogen A. fumigatus; it was sequenced in part to better understand A. fumigatus pathogenicity.{{cite web |url=http://www.broadinstitute.org/annotation/genome/aspergillus_group/GenomeDescriptions.html |title=Descriptions – Aspergillus Comparative |publisher=Broad Institute |access-date=2009-10-15 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091122052538/http://www.broadinstitute.org/annotation/genome/aspergillus_group/GenomeDescriptions.html |archive-date= 22 November 2009 |url-status=live}}

Of the 250 species of aspergilli, about 64% have no known sexual state.{{cite journal | vauthors = Dyer PS, O'Gorman CM | title = A fungal sexual revolution: Aspergillus and Penicillium show the way | journal = Current Opinion in Microbiology | volume = 14 | issue = 6 | pages = 649–54 | date = December 2011 | pmid = 22032932 | doi = 10.1016/j.mib.2011.10.001 }} However, many of these species likely have an as yet unidentified sexual stage. Sexual reproduction occurs in two fundamentally different ways in fungi. These are outcrossing (in heterothallic fungi) in which two different individuals contribute nuclei, and self-fertilization or selfing (in homothallic fungi) in which both nuclei are derived from the same individual. In recent years, sexual cycles have been discovered in numerous species previously thought to be asexual. These discoveries reflect recent experimental focus on species of particular relevance to humans.{{cn|date=November 2023}}

A. fumigatus is the most common species to cause disease in immunodeficient humans. In 2009, A. fumigatus was shown to have a heterothallic, fully functional sexual cycle.{{cite journal | vauthors = O'Gorman CM, Fuller H, Dyer PS | title = Discovery of a sexual cycle in the opportunistic fungal pathogen Aspergillus fumigatus | journal = Nature | volume = 457 | issue = 7228 | pages = 471–4 | date = January 2009 | pmid = 19043401 | doi = 10.1038/nature07528 | bibcode = 2009Natur.457..471O | s2cid = 4371721 }} Isolates of complementary mating types are required for sex to occur.

A. flavus is the major producer of carcinogenic aflatoxins in crops worldwide. It is also an opportunistic human and animal pathogen, causing aspergillosis in immunocompromised individuals. In 2009, a sexual state of this heterothallic fungus was found to arise when strains of opposite mating types were cultured together under appropriate conditions.{{cite journal | vauthors = Horn BW, Moore GG, Carbone I | title = Sexual reproduction in Aspergillus flavus | journal = Mycologia | volume = 101 | issue = 3 | pages = 423–9 | year = 2009 | pmid = 19537215 | doi = 10.3852/09-011 | s2cid = 20648447 | url = http://www.mycologia.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=short&pmid=19537215 | url-access = subscription }}

A. lentulus is an opportunistic human pathogen that causes invasive aspergillosis with high mortality rates. In 2013, A. lentulus was found to have a heterothallic functional sexual breeding system.{{cite journal | vauthors = Swilaiman SS, O'Gorman CM, Balajee SA, Dyer PS | title = Discovery of a sexual cycle in Aspergillus lentulus, a close relative of A. fumigatus | journal = Eukaryotic Cell | volume = 12 | issue = 7 | pages = 962–9 | date = July 2013 | pmid = 23650087 | pmc = 3697472 | doi = 10.1128/EC.00040-13 }}

A. terreus is commonly used in industry to produce important organic acids and enzymes, and was the initial source for the cholesterol-lowering drug lovastatin. In 2013, A. terreus was found to be capable of sexual reproduction when strains of opposite mating types were crossed under appropriate culture conditions.{{cite journal | vauthors = Arabatzis M, Velegraki A | title = Sexual reproduction in the opportunistic human pathogen Aspergillus terreus | journal = Mycologia | volume = 105 | issue = 1 | pages = 71–9 | year = 2013 | pmid = 23074177 | doi = 10.3852/11-426 | s2cid = 9584227 | url = http://www.mycologia.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=short&pmid=23074177 | url-access = subscription }}

These findings with Aspergillus species are consistent with accumulating evidence, from studies of other eukaryotic species, that sex was likely present in the common ancestor of all eukaryotes.{{cite journal | vauthors = Malik SB, Pightling AW, Stefaniak LM, Schurko AM, Logsdon JM | title = An expanded inventory of conserved meiotic genes provides evidence for sex in Trichomonas vaginalis | journal = PLOS ONE | volume = 3 | issue = 8 | pages = e2879 | date = August 2007 | pmid = 18663385 | pmc = 2488364 | doi = 10.1371/journal.pone.0002879 | bibcode = 2008PLoSO...3.2879M | doi-access = free }}{{cite journal | vauthors = Heitman J, Sun S, James TY | title = Evolution of fungal sexual reproduction | journal = Mycologia | volume = 105 | issue = 1 | pages = 1–27 | year = 2013 | pmid = 23099518 | doi = 10.3852/12-253 | s2cid = 18167947 | url = http://www.mycologia.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=short&pmid=23099518 | url-access = subscription }}

A. nidulans, a homothallic fungus, is capable of self-fertilization. Selfing involves activation of the same mating pathways characteristic of sex in outcrossing species, i.e. self-fertilization does not bypass required pathways for outcrossing sex, but instead requires activation of these pathways within a single individual.{{cite journal | vauthors = Paoletti M, Seymour FA, Alcocer MJ, Kaur N, Calvo AM, Archer DB, Dyer PS | title = Mating type and the genetic basis of self-fertility in the model fungus Aspergillus nidulans | journal = Current Biology | volume = 17 | issue = 16 | pages = 1384–9 | date = August 2007 | pmid = 17669651 | doi = 10.1016/j.cub.2007.07.012 | s2cid = 17068935 | doi-access = free | bibcode = 2007CBio...17.1384P }}

Among those Aspergillus species that exhibit a sexual cycle, the overwhelming majority in nature are homothallic (self-fertilizing).{{cite journal | vauthors = Dyer PS, O'Gorman CM | title = Sexual development and cryptic sexuality in fungi: insights from Aspergillus species | journal = FEMS Microbiology Reviews | volume = 36 | issue = 1 | pages = 165–92 | date = January 2012 | pmid = 22091779 | doi = 10.1111/j.1574-6976.2011.00308.x | doi-access = free }} This observation suggests Aspergillus species can generally maintain sex though little genetic variability is produced by homothallic self-fertilization. A. fumigatus, a heterothallic (outcrossing) fungus that occurs in areas with widely different climates and environments, also displays little genetic variability either within geographic regions or on a global scale,{{cite journal | vauthors = Rydholm C, Szakacs G, Lutzoni F | title = Low genetic variation and no detectable population structure in aspergillus fumigatus compared to closely related Neosartorya species | journal = Eukaryotic Cell | volume = 5 | issue = 4 | pages = 650–7 | date = April 2006 | pmid = 16607012 | pmc = 1459663 | doi = 10.1128/EC.5.4.650-657.2006 }} again suggesting sex, in this case outcrossing sex, can be maintained even when little genetic variability is produced.

The simultaneous publication of three Aspergillus genome manuscripts in Nature in December 2005 established the genus as the leading filamentous fungal genus for comparative genomic studies. Like most major genome projects, these efforts were collaborations between a large sequencing centre and the respective community of scientists. For example, the Institute for Genome Research (TIGR) worked with the A. fumigatus community. A. nidulans was sequenced at the Broad Institute. A. oryzae was sequenced in Japan at the National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology. The Joint Genome Institute of the Department of Energy has released sequence data for a citric acid-producing strain of A. niger. TIGR, now renamed the J. Craig Venter Institute, is currently spearheading a project on the A. flavus genome.{{cite book | veditors = Machida M, Gomi K | year=2010 |title=Aspergillus: Molecular Biology and Genomics | publisher=Caister Academic Press | isbn= 978-1-904455-53-0}}

Aspergillus is characterized by high levels of genetic diversity and, using protostome divergence as a scale, is as diverse as the Vertebrates phylum although both inter and intra-specific genome structure is relatively plastic.{{cite journal | vauthors = Gibbons JG, Rokas A | title = The function and evolution of the Aspergillus genome | journal = Trends in Microbiology | volume = 21 | issue = 1 | pages = 14–22 | date = January 2013 | pmid = 23084572 | pmc = 3534798 | doi = 10.1016/j.tim.2012.09.005 | url = }} The genomes of some Aspergillus species, such as A. flavus and A. oryzae, are more rich and around 20% larger than others, such as A. nidulans and A. fumigatus. Several mechanisms could explain this difference, although the combination of segmental duplication, genome duplication, and horizontal gene transfer acting in a piecemeal fashion is well-supported.{{cite journal | vauthors = Khaldi N, Wolfe KH | title = Elusive origins of the extra genes in Aspergillus oryzae | journal = PLOS ONE | volume = 3 | issue = 8 | pages = e3036 | date = August 2008 | pmid = 18725939 | pmc = 2515630 | doi = 10.1371/journal.pone.0003036 | bibcode = 2008PLoSO...3.3036K | veditors = Gadagkar S | doi-access = free }}

Genome sizes for sequenced species of Aspergillus range from about 29.3 Mb for A. fumigatus to 37.1 Mb for A. oryzae, while the numbers of predicted genes vary from about 9926 for A. fumigatus to about 12,071 for A. oryzae. The genome size of an enzyme-producing strain of A. niger is of intermediate size at 33.9 Mb.

Some Aspergillus species cause serious disease in humans and animals. The most common pathogenic species are A. fumigatus and A. flavus, which produces aflatoxin which is both a toxin and a carcinogen, and which can contaminate foods such as nuts. The most common species causing allergic disease are A. fumigatus and A. clavatus. Other species are important as agricultural pathogens. Aspergillus spp. cause disease on many grain crops, especially maize, and some variants synthesize mycotoxins, including aflatoxin. Aspergillus can cause neonatal infections.{{cite book | vauthors = Cloherty J |title=Manual of neonatal care |publisher=Wolters Kluwer Health/Lippincott Williams & Wilkins |location=Philadelphia |year=2012 |isbn=978-1-60831-777-6 |postscript=; Access provided by the University of Pittsburgh.}}

A. fumigatus (the most common species) infections are primary pulmonary infections and can potentially become a rapidly necrotizing pneumonia with a potential to disseminate. The organism can be differentiated from other common mold infections based on the fact that it takes on a mold form both in the environment and in the host (unlike Candida albicans which is a dimorphic mold in the environment and a yeast in the body).{{cn|date=November 2023}}

{{Main|Aspergillosis}}

Image:Pulmonary aspergillosis.jpg

Aspergillosis is the group of diseases caused by Aspergillus. The most common species among paranasal sinus infections associated with aspergillosis is A. fumigatus.{{cite journal | vauthors = Bozkurt MK, Ozçelik T, Saydam L, Kutluay L | title = [A case of isolated aspergillosis of the maxillary sinus] | language = tr | journal = Kulak Burun Bogaz Ihtisas Dergisi | volume = 18 | issue = 1 | pages = 53–5 | date = 2008 | pmid = 18443405 }} The symptoms include fever, cough, chest pain, or breathlessness, which also occur in many other illnesses, so diagnosis can be difficult. Usually, only patients with already weakened immune systems or who suffer other lung conditions are susceptible.{{cn|date=November 2023}}

In humans, the major forms of disease are:{{cite web |url=http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/296052-overview |title=Aspergillosis |publisher=MedScape |access-date=2014-06-29 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140223073734/http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/296052-overview |archive-date=2014-02-23 |url-status=live }}{{cite book | veditors = Wilson WR, Sande MA, Drew WL | title = Current diagnosis & treatment in infectious diseases. | publisher = Lange Medical Books/McGraw-Hill | date = 2001 }}

• Acute invasive aspergillosis, a form that grows into surrounding tissue, more common in those with weakened immune systems such as AIDS or chemotherapy patients
• Allergic bronchopulmonary aspergillosis, which affects patients with respiratory diseases such as asthma, cystic fibrosis, and sinusitis
• Aspergilloma, a "fungus ball" that can form within cavities such as the lung
• Disseminated invasive aspergillosis, an infection spread widely through the body

Fungal infections from Aspergillus spores remain one theory of sickness and untimely death of some early Egyptologists and tomb explorers. Ancient spores which grew on the remains of food offerings and mummies sealed in tombs and chambers may have been blown around and inhaled by the excavators, ultimately linked to the notion of the curse of the pharaohs.{{cite journal | vauthors = Di Paolo N, Guarnieri A, Garosi G, Sacchi G, Mangiarotti AM, Di Paolo M | title = Inhaled mycotoxins lead to acute renal failure | journal = Nephrology, Dialysis, Transplantation | volume = 9 | pages = 116–20 | date = 1994 | issue = Suppl 4 | pmid = 7800243 }}

Aspergillosis of the air passages is also frequently reported in birds, and certain species of Aspergillus have been known to infect insects.

Most people inhale Aspergillus into their lungs everyday,{{Cite web |date=2021-05-10 |title=Aspergillosis {{!}} Types of Fungal Diseases {{!}} Fungal Diseases {{!}} CDC |url=https://www.cdc.gov/fungal/diseases/aspergillosis/index.html |access-date=2022-09-02 |website=www.cdc.gov |language=en-us}} but generally only the immuno-compromised become sick with aspergillosis.

• Mold health issues
• Sick building syndrome
• Cryptococcus

{{clear}}

{{Reflist|refs=

{{cite web |title=Synonymy. Current Name: Aspergillus P. Micheli ex Haller, Hist. stirp. Helv. (Bernae) 3: 113 (1768) |url=https://www.speciesfungorum.org/Names/SynSpecies.asp?RecordID=7248 |publisher=Species Fungorum |access-date=10 October 2023}}

}}

{{refbegin}}

• {{Cite journal |author=Asan A. |orig-year=2004 |date=February 10, 2015 |title=Aspergillus, Penicillium, and Related Species Reported from Turkey |journal=Mycotaxon |volume=89 |issue=1 |pages=155–7 |url=http://www.mycotaxon.com/resources/checklists/asan-v89-checklist.pdf }}
• {{cite journal | vauthors = Du C, Lin SK, Koutinas A, Wang R, Dorado P, Webb C | title = A wheat biorefining strategy based on solid-state fermentation for fermentative production of succinic acid | journal = Bioresource Technology | volume = 99 | issue = 17 | pages = 8310–5 | date = November 2008 | pmid = 18434138 | doi = 10.1016/j.biortech.2008.03.019 | bibcode = 2008BiTec..99.8310D }}
• {{cite book | vauthors = Soltani J | date = 2016 | chapter = Secondary Metabolite Diversity of the Genus Aspergillus. | title = Recent Advances New and Future Developments in Microbial Biotechnology and Bioengineering: Aspergillus System Properties and Applications | pages = 275–292 }}
• {{cite journal | vauthors = Zirbes JM, Milla CE | title = Steroid-sparing effect of omalizumab for allergic bronchopulmonary aspergillosis and cystic fibrosis | journal = Pediatric Pulmonology | volume = 43 | issue = 6 | pages = 607–10 | date = June 2008 | pmid = 18433040 | doi = 10.1002/ppul.20804 | s2cid = 25806792 }}

{{refend}}

{{Wikispecies}}

• [http://www.broad.mit.edu/annotation/genome/aspergillus_group/ Aspergillus Comparative Database] Comparative genomic resource at the Broad Institute
• [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/projects/genome/guide/aspergillus/ Aspergillus Genome Resources (NIH)]
• [https://web.archive.org/web/20050512094530/http://moldacrossamerica.org/ASPPAPER%20LC.pdf Aspergillus surveillance project at a large tertiary-care hospital.] (PDF).
• [http://www.cadre-genomes.org.uk/ Central Aspergillus Data Repository]
• [http://fungidb.org FungiDB: An integrated functional genomics database for fungi and oomycetes]
• [https://homeheavenz.com/best-air-purifier-for-mold/ Mold and Mildew]
• [http://www.aspgd.org/ The Aspergillus Genome Database] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210525180521/http://www.aspgd.org/ |date=2021-05-25 }}
• [http://www.aspergillus.org.uk/ The Aspergillus/Aspergillosis Website] An encyclopedia of Aspergillus for patients, doctors and scientists
• [http://www.fgsc.net/ The Fungal Genetics Stock Center] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061001215555/http://www.fgsc.net/ |date=2006-10-01 }}

{{Taxonbar|from=Q335130}}

{{Authority control}}

Category:Parasitic fungi

Category:Eurotiomycetes genera

Category:Taxa described in 1768