battery energy storage system

File:Datacenter Backup Batteries.jpg

File:Invenergy Beech Ridge Energy Storage System.jpg modules packaged in shipping containers installed at Beech Ridge Energy Storage System in West Virginia{{cite news |last=Colthorpe |first=Andy |date=2 April 2020 |title=Illinois, Virginia wind farms add 72MWh of battery storage for PJM frequency regulation market |work=Energy Storage News |url=https://www.energy-storage.news/illionis-virginia-wind-farms-add-72mwh-of-battery-storage-for-pjm-frequency-regulation-market/ |access-date=20 June 2023}}{{cite news |last1=Jacobo |first1=Jonathan Tourino |title=Wisconsin regulators approve another Invenergy solar-plus-storage plant |url=https://www.energy-storage.news/wisconsin-regulators-approve-another-invenergy-solar-plus-storage-plant/ |access-date=19 June 2023 |work=Energy Storage News |date=12 April 2022}}]]

Battery storage power plants and uninterruptible power supplies (UPS) are comparable in technology and function. However, battery storage power plants are larger.

For safety and security, the actual batteries are housed in their own structures, like warehouses or containers. As with a UPS, one concern is that electrochemical energy is stored or emitted in the form of direct current (DC), while electric power networks are usually operated with alternating current (AC). For this reason, additional inverters are needed to connect the battery storage power plants to the high voltage network. This kind of power electronics include gate turn-off thyristor, commonly used in high-voltage direct current (HVDC) transmission.

Various accumulator systems may be used depending on the power-to-energy ratio, the expected lifetime and the costs. In the 1980s, lead-acid batteries were used for the first battery-storage power plants. During the next few decades, nickel–cadmium and sodium–sulfur batteries were increasingly used.[http://www.electrochem.org/dl/interface/fal/fal10/fal10_p049-053.pdf Batteries for Large-Scale Stationary Electrical Energy Storage] (PDF; 826 kB), The Electrochemical Society Interface, 2010, (engl.) Since 2010, more and more utility-scale battery storage plants rely on lithium-ion batteries, as a result of the fast decrease in the cost of this technology, caused by the electric automotive industry. Lithium-ion batteries are mainly used. A 4-hour flow vanadium redox battery at 175 MW / 700 MWh opened in 2024.{{cite web |title=Rongke Power delivers 175 MW / 700 MWh vanadium flow battery – 'world's largest' |url=https://www.bestmag.co.uk/rongke-power-delivers-175mw-700mwh-vanadium-flow-battery-worlds-largest/ |website=Best Magazine |language=en |date=6 December 2024}} Lead-acid batteries are still used in small budget applications.[http://www.pv-magazine.de/nachrichten/details/beitrag/groe-batteriespeicher-erobern-die-stromnetze_100019866/?L=1%27&cHash=6c7355d81d45667fe156f1fd8ece117a Große Batteriespeicher erobern die Stromnetze]. pv-magazine.de. Retrieved 11 March 2016.

Most of the BESS systems are composed of securely sealed battery packs, which are electronically monitored and replaced once their performance falls below a given threshold. Batteries suffer from cycle ageing, or deterioration caused by charge–discharge cycles. This deterioration is generally higher at high charging rates and higher depth of discharge. This aging cause a loss of performance (capacity or voltage decrease), overheating, and may eventually lead to critical failure (electrolyte leaks, fire, explosion). Sometimes battery storage power stations are built with flywheel storage power systems in order to conserve battery power.[http://www.utilitydive.com/news/pge-contracts-for-75-mw-of-energy-storage-on-its-way-to-580-mw-of-capacity/410242/ utilitydive.com], PG&E contracts for 75 MW of energy storage on its way to 580 MW of capacity. Dec. 4, 2015 Flywheels may handle rapid fluctuations better than older battery plants.[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mRhvpaXszTc zdf-video], ZDF - Planet E - Schwungradspeicher. 27 February 2013

BESS warranties typically include lifetime limits on energy throughput, expressed as number of charge–discharge cycles.{{Cite book |last=Energy Sector Management Assistance Program |url=http://hdl.handle.net/10986/34493 |title=Warranties for Battery Energy Storage Systems in Developing Countries |date=2020-08-01 |publisher=World Bank, Washington, DC |language=en |doi=10.1596/34493|hdl=10986/34493 }}

Lead-acid batteries are first generation batteries are generally used in older BESS systems.{{Cite journal |last1=May |first1=Geoffrey J. |last2=Davidson |first2=Alistair |last3=Monahov |first3=Boris |date=2018-02-01 |title=Lead batteries for utility energy storage: A review |journal=Journal of Energy Storage |volume=15 |pages=145–157 |doi=10.1016/j.est.2017.11.008 |issn=2352-152X|doi-access=free |bibcode=2018JEnSt..15..145M }} Some examples are 1.6 MW peak, 1.0 MW continuous battery was commissioned in 1997.{{Cite book |last=Franks |first=William A. |chapter=Kinetic Energy Storage for Rapid Transit Applications |date=2024-01-29 |title=2024 IEEE Electrical Energy Storage Application and Technologies Conference (EESAT) |chapter-url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1109/eesat59125.2024.10471223 |pages=1–5 |publisher=IEEE |doi=10.1109/eesat59125.2024.10471223|isbn=979-8-3503-0823-5 }} Compared to modern rechargeable batteries, lead-acid batteries have relatively low energy density. Despite this, they are able to supply high surge currents. However, non-sealed lead-acid batteries produce hydrogen and oxygen from the aqueous electrolyte when overcharged. The water has to be refilled regularly to avoid damage to the battery; and, the inflammable gases have to be vented out to avoid explosion risks. However, this maintenance has a cost, and recent batteries such as Li-ion batteries do not have such an issue.

{{main|Lithium-ion battery#Safety}}

Lithium-ion batteries are designed to have a long lifespan without maintenance. They generally have high energy density and low self-discharge.{{Cite journal |last1=Alkhedher |first1=Mohammad |last2=Al Tahhan |first2=Aghyad B. |last3=Yousaf |first3=Jawad |last4=Ghazal |first4=Mohammed |last5=Shahbazian-Yassar |first5=Reza |last6=Ramadan |first6=Mohamad |date=2024-05-01 |title=Electrochemical and thermal modeling of lithium-ion batteries: A review of coupled approaches for improved thermal performance and safety lithium-ion batteries |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2352152X24007564 |journal=Journal of Energy Storage |volume=86 |pages=111172 |doi=10.1016/j.est.2024.111172 |bibcode=2024JEnSt..8611172A |issn=2352-152X}} Due to these properties, most modern BESS are lithium-ion-based batteries.{{cite book |last1=Chung |first1=Hsien-Ching |last2=Nguyen |first2=Thi Dieu Hien |last3=Lin |first3=Shih-Yang |last4=Li |first4=Wei-Bang |last5=Tran |first5=Ngoc Thanh Thuy |last6=Thi Han |first6=Nguyen |last7=Liu |first7=Hsin-Yi |last8=Pham |first8=Hai Duong |last9=Lin |first9=Ming-Fa |title=First-Principles Calculations for Cathode, Electrolyte and Anode Battery Materials |date=December 2021 |publisher=IOP Publishing |url=https://doi.org/10.1088/978-0-7503-4685-6ch16 |chapter=Chapter 16 - Engineering integrations, potential applications, and outlooks of Li-ion battery industry|doi=10.1088/978-0-7503-4685-6ch16 |isbn=978-0-7503-4685-6 }}

A drawback of some types of lithium-ion batteries is fire safety, mostly ones containing cobalt.{{cite web | url=https://www.epri.com/research/products/3002028522 | title=Safety Implications of Lithium Ion Chemistries |date=December 22, 2023 |publisher=Electric Power Research Institute |quote= }} The number of BESS incidents has remained around 10–20 per year (mostly within the first 2–3 years of age), despite the large increase in number and size of BESS. Thus failure rate has decreased. Failures occurred mostly in controls and balance of system, while 11% occurred in cells.{{cite web | url=https://www.powermag.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/05/bess-failure-report.pdf | title=Insights from EPRI's Battery Energy Storage Systems (BESS) Failure Incident Database: Analysis of Failure Root Cause |date=May 15, 2024 |publisher=Electric Power Research Institute |quote= }}

Examples of BESS fire accidents include individual modules in 23 battery farms in South Korea in 2017 to 2019,{{cite journal |last1=Na |first1=Yong-Un |last2=Jeon |first2=Jae-Wook |title=Unraveling the Characteristics of ESS Fires in South Korea: An In-Depth Analysis of ESS Fire Investigation Outcomes |journal=Fire |pages=389 |language=en |doi=10.3390/fire6100389 |date=October 2023|volume=6 |issue=10 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2023Fire....6..389N }} a Tesla Megapack in Geelong,{{Cite web|title=Large battery fire in Moorabool|url=http://www.frv.vic.gov.au/large-battery-fire-moorabool |access-date=2021-07-30|website=www.frv.vic.gov.au|date=30 July 2021 |language=en}}{{Cite web|date=2021-07-30|title=Fire breaks out at giant battery project near Geelong|url=https://www.abc.net.au/news/2021-07-30/tesla-battery-fire-moorabool-geelong/100337488 |access-date=2021-07-30|website=www.abc.net.au|language=en-AU}} the fire and subsequent explosion of a battery module in Arizona, and the cooling liquid short circuiting incidents and fire at the Moss Landing LG battery.{{Cite web|title=The world's largest battery facility has gone dormant in Moss Landing, with no timetable on return.|url=https://www.montereycountyweekly.com/news/local_news/the-world-s-largest-battery-facility-has-gone-dormant-in-moss-landing-with-no-timetable/article_3c30ab46-1657-11ec-b44b-5ffbeeab437d.html |url-status=dead|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20210916083836/https://www.montereycountyweekly.com/news/local_news/the-world-s-largest-battery-facility-has-gone-dormant-in-moss-landing-with-no-timetable/article_3c30ab46-1657-11ec-b44b-5ffbeeab437d.html |archive-date=2021-09-16}}{{cite web | url=https://www.fireandsafetysolutionsltd.com/lithium-ion-batteries-5-largest-fires-to-date/ | title=Lithium Ion Batteries - 5 Largest Fires To Date |website= Fire and Safety Solutions |date=April 4, 2022 }}{{cite web |title=Massive Moss Landing battery “still smoking” as authorities probe cause of devastating fire |url=https://reneweconomy.com.au/massive-moss-landing-battery-still-smoking-as-authorities-probe-cause-of-devastating-fire/ |website=RenewEconomy |language=en-AU |date=20 January 2025 }}

This resulted in more research in recent years for mitigation measures for fire safety.{{Cite journal |last1=Lv |first1=Youfu |last2=Geng |first2=Xuewen |last3=Luo |first3=Weiming |last4=Chu |first4=Tianying |last5=Li |first5=Haonan |last6=Liu |first6=Daifei |last7=Cheng |first7=Hua |last8=Chen |first8=Jian |last9=He |first9=Xi |last10=Li |first10=Chuanchang |date=2023-11-20 |title=Review on influence factors and prevention control technologies of lithium-ion battery energy storage safety |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2352152X23017863 |journal=Journal of Energy Storage |volume=72 |pages=108389 |doi=10.1016/j.est.2023.108389 |bibcode=2023JEnSt..7208389L |issn=2352-152X}}

By 2024, the lithium iron phosphate (LFP) battery has become another significant type for large storages due to the high availability of its components, longer lifetime and higher safety compared to nickel-based Li-ion chemistries.{{cite web |title=LFP battery to retain dominant market share in energy storage sector |url=https://www.nasdaq.com/articles/lfp-battery-to-retain-dominant-market-share-in-energy-storage-sector-experts |publisher=Reuters |date=2023-12-07}} An LFP-based energy storage system that was installed in Paiyun Lodge on Mt. Jade (Yushan) (the highest alpine lodge in Taiwan) and operated since 2016, has, as of 2024, operated without a safety incident.{{cite journal |last1=Chung |first1=Hsien-Ching |title=The Long-Term Usage of an Off-Grid Photovoltaic System with a Lithium-Ion Battery-Based Energy Storage System on High Mountains: A Case Study in Paiyun Lodge on Mt. Jade in Taiwan |journal=Batteries |date=13 June 2024 |volume=10 |issue=6 |pages=202 |doi=10.3390/batteries10060202|doi-access=free |arxiv=2405.04225 }}

Alternatively, sodium-based batteries are materials that are increasingly for BESS utilisation. Compared to lithium-ion batteries, sodium-ion batteries have somewhat lower cost, better safety characteristics, and similar power delivery characteristics. However it has a lower energy density compared to lithium-ion batteries. Its working principle and cell construction are similar to those of lithium-ion battery (LIB) types, but it replaces lithium with sodium as the intercalating ion. Some sodium-based batteries can also operate safely at high temperatures (sodium–sulfur battery). Some notable sodium battery producers with high safety claims include (non-exclusive) Altris AB, SgNaPlus and Tiamat. Sodium-based batteries are not fully commercialised yet. The largest BESS utilizing sodium-ion technology started operating in 2024 in Hubei province, boasts a capacity of 50 MW / 100 MWh.{{cite web |last1=Durrani |first1=Jamie |title=World's largest sodium–ion battery goes live |url=https://www.chemistryworld.com/news/worlds-largest-sodium-ion-battery-goes-live/4019792.article |website=Chemistry World |language=en |date=10 July 2024}}

File:Schwerin_20140923_wemag2.jpg

Since they do not have any mechanical parts, battery storage power plants offer extremely short control times and start times, as little as 10 ms.{{cite web|title=Year 2 Technical and Market Impact Case Study|url=https://www.aurecongroup.com/-/media/files/downloads-library/thought-leadership/aurecon-hornsdale-power-reserve-impact-study-2020.pdf |publisher=Aurecon|quote=HPR is modelled to have reduced the total Contingency FCAS cost by approximately $80M, and the total Regulation FCAS cost by approximately $36M, for a total NEM cost reduction of approximately $116M}} They can therefore help dampen the fast oscillations that occur when electrical power networks are operated close to their maximum capacity or when grids suffer anomalies. These instabilities – fluctuations with periods of as much as 30 seconds – can produce peak swings of such amplitude that they can cause regional blackouts. Some of the parameters are voltage, frequency and phase. A properly sized battery storage power plant can efficiently counteract these oscillations; therefore, applications are found primarily in those regions where electrical power systems are operated at full capacity, leading to a risk of instability.{{citation needed|date=July 2019}} However, some batteries have insufficient control systems, failing during moderate disruptions they should have tolerated.{{cite web |title=Battery storage failures highlight reliability challenges of inverter-based resources: report |url=https://www.utilitydive.com/news/NERC-batteries-inverter-based-resource-faults/695611/ |website=Utility Dive |date=4 October 2023}} Batteries are also commonly used for peak shaving for periods of up to a few hours. A more recent use is strengthening transmission, as long power lines can be operated closer to their capacity when batteries handle the local difference between supply and demand.{{cite web |title="Beyond poles and wires:" Transgrid signs contract with big batteries to boost capacity on constrained grid |url=https://reneweconomy.com.au/beyond-poles-and-wires-transgrid-signs-contract-with-big-batteries-to-boost-capacity-on-constrained-grid/ |website=RenewEconomy |language=en-AU |date=21 November 2024}}

Storage plants can also be used in combination with an intermittent renewable energy source in stand-alone power systems.{{cite web |title=Ground-breaking solar and battery microgrid to double in capacity at WA gold mine |url=https://reneweconomy.com.au/ground-breaking-solar-and-battery-microgrid-to-double-in-capacity-at-wa-gold-mine/ |website=RenewEconomy |language=en-AU |date=29 August 2024}}

{{See also|List of energy storage power plants|List of largest power stations#Battery storage}}

File:U.S. utility-scale battery storage capacity as of November 2023.svg

While the market for grid batteries is small compared to the other major form of grid storage, pumped hydroelectricity, it is growing very fast. For example, in the United States, the market for storage power plants in 2015 increased by 243% compared to 2014.[http://www.pv-magazine.de/nachrichten/details/beitrag/usa--speichermarkt-wchst-um-243-prozent-im-jahr-2015_100022293/?L=1%2F&cHash=354a077b67e7c4907ad384dc9d5b6abf USA: Speichermarkt wächst um 243 Prozent im Jahr 2015]. pv-magazine.de. retrieved 11 March 2016. The 2021 price of a 60 MW / 240 MWh (4-hour) battery installation in the United States was US$379/usable kWh, or US$292/nameplate kWh, a 13% drop from 2020.{{cite web |last1=Colthorpe |first1=Andy |title=NREL: Cost of solar, energy storage in US fell across all segments from 2020 to 2021 |url=https://www.pv-tech.org/nrel-cost-of-solar-energy-storage-in-us-fell-across-all-segments-from-2020-to-2021/ |website=PV Tech |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20211112182042/https://www.pv-tech.org/nrel-cost-of-solar-energy-storage-in-us-fell-across-all-segments-from-2020-to-2021/ |archive-date=12 November 2021 |date=4 November 2021 |url-status=live}}{{cite web|url=https://www.nrel.gov/docs/fy22osti/80694.pdf |title=U.S. Solar Photovoltaic System and Energy Storage Cost Benchmarks: Q1 2021 |id=NREL/TP-7A40-80694 |publisher=U.S. Department of Energy |work=National Renewable Energy Laboratory |page=36 |date=November 2021 |access-date=14 November 2021}}

In 2010, the United States had 59 MW of battery storage capacity from 7 battery power plants. This increased to 49 plants comprising 351 MW of capacity in 2015. In 2018, the capacity was 869 MW from 125 plants, capable of storing a maximum of 1,236 MWh of generated electricity. By the end of 2020, the battery storage capacity reached 1,756 MW.{{Cite web|url=https://www.eia.gov/analysis/studies/electricity/batterystorage/ |title=Battery Storage in the United States: An Update on Market Trends|publisher=U.S. Energy Information Administration|date=July 15, 2020|access-date=March 27, 2021}}{{cite web | url= https://cleanpower.org/news/wind-industry-closes-record-2020-with-strongest-quarter-ever/ | title= Wind Industry Closes Record 2020 With Strongest Quarter Ever|date = February 4, 2021| publisher= American Clean Power Association| access-date=April 3, 2021 }} At the end of 2021, the capacity grew to 4,588 MW.{{cite web | url= https://cleanpower.org/news/u-s-surpasses-200-gigawatts-of-total-clean-power-capacity-but-the-pace-of-deployment-has-slowed-according-to-acp-4q-report/| title= U.S. surpasses 200 gigawatts of total clean power capacity, but the pace of deployment has slowed according to ACP 4Q report| date= February 15, 2022| publisher= American Clean Power Association| access-date= February 19, 2022}} In 2022, US capacity doubled to 9 GW / 25 GWh.{{cite web |last1=Colthorpe |first1=Andy |title=US installed grid-scale battery storage capacity reached 9 GW / 25 GWh in 'record-breaking' 2022 |url=https://www.energy-storage.news/us-installed-grid-scale-battery-storage-capacity-reached-9gw-25gwh-in-record-breaking-2022/ |website=Energy Storage News |date=28 February 2023}} USA installed 12.3 GW and 37.1 GWh of batteries in 2024.{{cite web |last1=Maisch |first1=Marija |title=US energy storage installations grow 33% year-over-year |url=https://www.ess-news.com/2025/03/20/us-energy-storage-installations-grow-33-year-over-year/ |website=Energy Storage |date=20 March 2025}}

As of May 2021, 1.3 GW of battery storage was operating in the United Kingdom, with 16 GW of projects in the pipeline potentially deployable over the next few years.{{cite news |url=https://www.solarpowerportal.co.uk/blogs/top_ten_uk_battery_storage_projects_forecast_for_2021_completion |title=Top ten UK battery storage projects forecast for 2021 completion |last=McCorkindale |first=Mollie |website=Solar Power Portal |date=19 May 2021 |access-date=27 September 2021}} In 2022, UK capacity grew by 800 MWh, ending at 2.4 GW / 2.6 GWh.{{cite web |last=McCorkindale |first=Mollie |title=800MWh of utility-scale energy storage capacity added in the UK during 2022 |url=https://www.energy-storage.news/800mwh-of-utility-scale-energy-storage-capacity-added-in-the-uk-during-2022/ |website=Energy Storage News |date=1 February 2023}} In June 2024 the capacity was 4.6 GW of power and 5.9 GWh of energy.{{cite web |last1=Green |first1=Molly |title=Energy storage deployment continues to see massive growth potential across the UK & Ireland |url=https://www.solarpowerportal.co.uk/energy-storage-deployment-continues-to-see-massive-growth-potential-across-the-uk-ireland/ |website=Solar Power Portal |date=1 July 2024}}

Europe added 1.9 GW in 2022, with several more projects planned.{{cite web |last1=Murray |first1=Cameron |title=Europe deployed 1.9 GW of battery storage in 2022, 3.7 GW expected in 2023 - LCP Delta |url=https://www.energy-storage.news/europe-deployed-1-9gw-of-battery-storage-in-2022-3-7gw-expected-in-2023-lcp-delta/ |website=Energy Storage News |date=21 March 2023}}

At the end of 2024, China had 62 GW / 141 GWh of battery power stations.{{cite web |last1=Lynas |first1=Matthew |title=China’s battery storage capacity doubles in 2024 |url=https://www.ess-news.com/2025/04/04/chinas-battery-storage-capacity-doubles-in-2024/ |website=Energy Storage |date=4 April 2025}} In 2020, China added 1,557 MW to its battery storage capacity, while storage facilities for photovoltaics projects accounting for 27% of the capacity,{{Cite web|last=Yuki |date=2021-07-05 |title="First-of-its-Kind" Energy Storage Tech Fest -China Clean Energy Syndicate|url=https://energyiceberg.com/first-of-its-kind-energy-storage-tech-fest-china-clean-energy-syndicate/ |access-date=2021-07-18|website=Energy Iceberg|language=en-US}} to the total 3,269 MW of electrochemical energy storage capacity.{{Cite book|url=https://static1.squarespace.com/static/55826ab6e4b0a6d2b0f53e3d/t/60d2fff40aec596dc9e5cd65/1624440841870/CNESA+White+Paper+2021-PDF |title=Energy Storage Industry White Paper 2021|publisher=China Energy Storage Alliance|year=2021}}

Some developers are building storage systems from old batteries of electric cars, where costs can probably be halved compared to the original price.{{Cite web|title=Electric vehicles, second life batteries, and their effect on the power sector {{!}} McKinsey|url=https://www.mckinsey.com/industries/automotive-and-assembly/our-insights/second-life-ev-batteries-the-newest-value-pool-in-energy-storage |access-date=2021-12-15|website=www.mckinsey.com}} A 53 MWh battery made from 900 electric cars started in 2024.{{cite web |title=World's largest second-life battery storage project joins Texas grid |url=https://www.ess-news.com/2024/11/22/worlds-largest-second-life-battery-storage-project-joins-texas-grid/ |website=Energy Storage |date=22 November 2024}}

• List of energy storage power plants

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Storage power station

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Category:Grid energy storage