behavior modification

The first use of the term behavior modification appears to have been by Edward Thorndike in 1911. His article Provisional Laws of Acquired Behavior or Learning makes frequent use of the term "modifying behavior".{{Cite journal |last=Thorndike |first=E.L. |year=1911 |title=Provisional Laws of Acquired Behavior or Learning |journal=Animal Intelligence |publisher=The Macmillan Company |location=New York }} Through early research in the 1940s and the 1950s the term was used by Joseph Wolpe's research group.{{cite journal |last=Wolpe |first=J. |year=1968 |title=Psychotheraphy by Reciprocal Inhibition |journal=Conditional Reflex |volume=3 |issue=4 |pages=234–240 |doi=10.1007/BF03000093 |pmid=5712667 |s2cid=46015274 |url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/BF03000093|url-access=subscription}} The experimental tradition in clinical psychology used it to refer to psycho-therapeutic techniques derived from empirical research.In {{cite book |editor-first=A. J. |editor-last=Bachrach |title=Experimental Foundations of Clinical Psychology |url=https://archive.org/details/experimentalfoun0000bach |url-access=registration |pages=[https://archive.org/details/experimentalfoun0000bach/page/n67 3]–25 |location=New York |publisher=Basic Books |year=1962 }} In the 1960s, behavior modification operated on stimulus-response-reinforcement framework (S-R-S^R), emphasizing the concept of 'transactional' explanations of behavior.{{cite journal |last1=Keehn |first1=J.D |last2=Webster |first2=C.D |title=Behavior Therapy and Behavior Modification |journal=The Canadian Psychologist |date=February 1969 |volume=10 |issue=1 |page=68-73|doi=10.1037/h0082506 }} It has since come to refer mainly to techniques for increasing adaptive behavior through reinforcement and decreasing maladaptive behavior through extinction or punishment (with emphasis on the former).

In recent years, the concept of punishment has had many critics, though these criticisms tend not to apply to negative punishment (time-outs) and usually apply to the addition of some aversive event. The use of positive punishment by board certified behavior analysts is restricted to extreme circumstances when all other forms of treatment have failed and when the behavior to be modified is a danger to the person or to others (see professional practice of behavior analysis). In clinical settings positive punishment is usually restricted to using a spray bottle filled with water as an aversive event. When misused, more aversive punishment can lead to affective (emotional) disorders, as well as to the receiver of the punishment increasingly trying to avoid the punishment (i.e., "not get caught")..

Behavior modification relies on the following:

• Reinforcement (positive and negative)
• Punishment (positive and negative)
• Extinction
• Shaping
• Fading
• Chaining

Functional behavior assessment forms the core of applied behavior analysis, and this technology was not part of behavior modification. A Functional Behavioral Assessment (FBA) is a systematic process used to identify the underlying causes and functions of challenging behaviors. Unlike traditional behavior modification, which often focused solely on altering the behavior itself, FBA seeks to understand the reasons behind a behavior by examining the environmental, social, and psychological factors that contribute to it. The FBA process involves several steps: defining the problematic behavior in observable and measurable terms, collecting data through direct observation, interviews, and review of records, identifying patterns and triggers, hypothesizing the function of the behavior, and developing intervention strategies based on these hypotheses.

The importance of FBA lies in its comprehensive and individualized approach. By understanding the function of a behavior, interventions can be tailored to address the root cause rather than just the symptoms. This leads to more effective and lasting behavior change. For example, if a behavior is identified as a way for an individual to escape a difficult task, the intervention might include teaching more appropriate ways to request a break or modifying the task to make it more manageable. In contrast, traditional behavior modification might only attempt to suppress the escape behavior without addressing the underlying issue, which could lead to frustration and the emergence of other problematic behaviors.

Additionally, FBA emphasizes a positive and proactive approach, focusing on teaching alternative, contextually appropriate behaviors and modifying the environment to support these behaviors design to support QoL. This stands in contrast to the often punitive nature of previous behavior modification techniques. Overall, FBA represents a more humane and effective method for understanding and addressing challenging behaviors, leading to improved outcomes for individuals.

Professionals use this science of behavior modification often with individuals with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD). The purpose of behavior modification for these people is to work on increasing socially significant behavior such as academic skills, adaptive skills, social skills, and vocational skills, while decreasing problem behaviors.{{Cite journal |last=Roth |first=Matthew E. |last2=Gillis |first2=Jennifer M. |last3=DiGennaro Reed |first3=Florence D. |date=2014-06-01 |title=A Meta-Analysis of Behavioral Interventions for Adolescents and Adults with Autism Spectrum Disorders |url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10864-013-9189-x |journal=Journal of Behavioral Education |language=en |volume=23 |issue=2 |pages=258–286 |doi=10.1007/s10864-013-9189-x |issn=1573-3513}} One of the main issues behavior modification addresses is deficits in communication skills that cause problem behaviors such as crying, screaming, falling, and hitting in those with autism.{{Cite journal |last=Adams |first=Lynn |last2=Gouvousis |first2=Aphroditi |last3=VanLue |first3=Michael |last4=Waldron |first4=Claire |date=2004 |title=Social Story Intervention: Improving Communication Skills in a Child With an Autism Spectrum Disorder |url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/10883576040190020301 |journal=Focus on Autism and Other Developmental Disabilities |language=en |volume=19 |issue=2 |pages=87–94 |doi=10.1177/10883576040190020301 |issn=1088-3576}}

One of the main forms of behavior modification used with people who have ASD is applied behavior analysis (ABA).{{Cite journal |last=Matson |first=Johnny L. |last2=Turygin |first2=Nicole C. |last3=Beighley |first3=Jennifer |last4=Rieske |first4=Robert |last5=Tureck |first5=Kimberly |last6=Matson |first6=Michael L. |date=2012-01-01 |title=Applied behavior analysis in Autism Spectrum Disorders: Recent developments, strengths, and pitfalls |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1750946711000778 |journal=Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders |volume=6 |issue=1 |pages=144–150 |doi=10.1016/j.rasd.2011.03.014 |issn=1750-9467}} Applied behavior analysis is a form of behavior modification that has a specific framework and ethical rules, and it has gained popularity in the field of psychology over the past 50 years.{{Cite journal |last=Denne |first=Louise D. |last2=Hastings |first2=Richard p. |last3=Carl Hughes |first3=J. |last4=Bovellc |first4=Virginia |last5=Redford |first5=Linda |date=2011 |title=Developing a Competence Framework for ABA and Autism: What Can we Learn From Others? |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/15021149.2011.11434365 |journal=European Journal of Behavior Analysis |language=en |volume=12 |issue=1 |pages=217–230 |doi=10.1080/15021149.2011.11434365 |issn=1502-1149}}

For children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), one study showed that over a several-year period, children in the behavior modification group had half the number of felony arrests as children in the medication group.{{cite journal |last1=Satterfield |first1=J. H. |last2=Satterfield |first2=B. T. |last3=Schell |first3=A. M. |year=1987 |title=Therapeutic interventions to prevent delinquency in hyperactive boys |journal=Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry |volume=26 |issue=1 |pages=56–64 |doi=10.1097/00004583-198701000-00012 |pmid=3584002 }}{{cite journal |last1=Satterfield |first1=J. H. |last2=Schell |first2=A. |year=1997 |title=A prospective study of hyperactive boys with conduct problems and normal boys: Adolescent and adult criminality |journal=Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry |volume=36 |issue=12 |pages=1726–35 |doi=10.1097/00004583-199712000-00021 |pmid=9401334}} These findings have yet to be replicated, but are considered encouraging for the use of behavior modification for children with ADHD. There is strong and consistent evidence that behavioral treatments are effective for treating ADHD. A 2008 meta-analysis found that the use of behavior modification for ADHD resulted in effect sizes in between group studies (.83), pre-post studies (.70), within group studies (2.64), and single subject studies (3.78) indicating behavioral treatments are highly effective.{{cite journal |last1=Fabiano |first1=G. A. |last2=Pelham Jr. |first2=W. E. |last3=Coles |first3=E. K. |last4=Gnagy |first4=E. M. |last5=Chronis-Tuscano |first5=A. |last6=O'Connor |first6=B. C. |year=2008 |title=A meta-analysis of behavioral treatments for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder |journal=Clinical Psychology Review |volume=29 |issue=2 |pages=129–40 |doi=10.1016/j.cpr.2008.11.001 |pmid=19131150|doi-access=free }}

Drawing upon Bandura's self-efficacy theory, which has proven effective in programs aimed at promoting health-related behavioral modifications in adults with diabetes, various interventions have been implemented. These interventions incorporate group counseling, group discussions, and an empowerment process, all geared towards encouraging individuals to adopt healthy dietary practices, adhere to medication regimens, and engage in regular exercise, with the goal of improving glycemic levels. Notably, the outcomes of these programs have demonstrated promising advancements, with improvements observed in self-efficacy and trends towards significance in hemoglobin A1c levels.{{cite journal |last1=Ounnapiruk |first1=Liwan |last2=Wirojratana |first2=Virapun |last3=Meehatchai |first3=Nitaya |last4=Turale |first4=Sue |title=Effectiveness of a behavior modification program for older people with uncontrolled type 2 diabetes |journal=Nursing & Health Sciences |date=2014 |volume=16 |issue=2 |pages=216–223 |doi=10.1111/nhs.12089 |pmid=23991917 |url=https://doi.org/10.1111/nhs.12089}}

Behavior modification programs form the core of many residential treatment facility programs. They have shown success in reducing recidivism for adolescents with conduct problems and adult offenders. One particular program that is of interest is teaching-family homes (see Teaching Family Model), which is based on a social learning model that emerged from radical behaviorism. These particular homes use a family style approach to residential treatment, which has been carefully replicated over 700 times.Dean L. Fixsen, Karen A. Blasé, Gary D. Timbers and Montrose M. Wolf (2007) In Search of Program Implementation: 792 Replications of the Teaching-Family Model. Behavior Analyst Today Volume 8, No. 1, pp. 96–106 [http://www.baojournal.com Behavior Analyst Online] Recent efforts have seen a push for the inclusion of more behavior modification programs in residential re-entry programs in the U.S. to aid prisoners in re-adjusting after release.

Research has shown effectiveness for obese people who binge eat. One program called the Trevose Behavior Modification Program (TBMP) is an accessible self-help weight loss program that emphasizes ongoing care. TBMP, administered and directed by non-professionals, has demonstrated remarkable success in facilitating substantial and lasting weight loss. This program not only offers the advantage of being cost-effective but also provides continuous support. Notably, individuals with and without frequent binge eating have achieved significant long-term weight loss through TBMP's continuing care approach.{{cite journal |last1=Delinsky |first1=Sherrie Selwyn |last2=Latner |first2=Janet D. |last3=Wilson |first3=G. Terence |title=Binge Eating and Weight Loss in a Self-Help Behavior Modification Program |journal=Obesity |date=2006 |volume=14 |issue=7 |pages=1244–1249 |doi=10.1038/oby.2006.141 |pmid=16899805 |s2cid=1363953 |doi-access=free }}

One area that has repeatedly shown effectiveness has been the work of behaviorists working in the area of community reinforcement for addictions.Milford, J.L.; Austin, J.L.; Smith, J.E. (2007). Community Reinforcement and the Dissemination of Evidence-based Practice: Implications for Public Policy. IJBCT, 3(1), pp. 77–87 [http://www.baojournal.com])

Another area of research that has been strongly supported has been behavioral activation for depression.{{cite journal | last1 = Spates | first1 = R.C. | last2 = Pagoto | first2 = S. | last3 = Kalata | first3 = A. | year = 2006 | title = A Qualitative and Quantitative Review of Behavioral Activation Treatment of Major Depressive Disorder | url = http://www.baojournal.com | journal = The Behavior Analyst Today | volume = 7 | issue = 4| pages = 508–17 | doi=10.1037/h0100089| s2cid = 3337916 }}

One way of giving positive reinforcement in behavior modification is in providing compliments, approval, encouragement, and affirmation; a ratio of five compliments for every one complaint is generally seen as being effective in altering behavior in a desired manner{{cite book |last1=Kirkhart |first1=Robert |last2=Kirkhart |first2=Evelyn |chapter=The Bruised Self: Mending in the Early Years |editor-first=Kaoru |editor-last=Yamamoto |title=The Child and His File: Self Concept in the Early Years |location=New York |publisher=Houghton Mifflin |year=1972 |isbn=978-0-395-12571-7 |chapter-url-access=registration |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/childhisimagesel0000unse |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/childhisimagesel0000unse }} and even in producing stable marriages.{{cite journal | last1 = Gottman | first1 = J.M. | last2 = Levenson | first2 = R.W. | year = 1999 | title = What predicts change in marital interaction over time? A study of alternative models | journal = Family Process | volume = 38 | issue = 2| pages = 143–58 | doi=10.1111/j.1545-5300.1999.00143.x| pmid = 10407716 }}

{{See also|Cognitive behavioral therapy#Criticisms|Psychotherapy#General critiques}}

Behavior modification is critiqued in person-centered psychotherapeutic approaches such as Rogerian Counseling and Re-evaluation Counseling,{{cite web|url=http://www.rc.org/|title=Re-evaluation Counseling}} which involve "connecting with the human qualities of the person to promote healing", while behaviorism is "denigrating to the human spirit".{{cite journal | last1 = Holland | first1 = J.L. | year = 1976 | title = A new synthesis for an old method and a new analysis of some old phenomena | journal = The Counseling Psychologist | volume = 6 | issue = 3| pages = 12–15 | doi=10.1177/001100007600600303| s2cid = 143031073 }} B.F. Skinner argues in Beyond Freedom and Dignity that unrestricted reinforcement is what led to the "feeling of freedom", thus removal of aversive events allows people to "feel freer".{{cite book |first=B. F. |last=Skinner |year=1974 |title=Beyond Freedom and Dignity |location=Harmondsworth |publisher=Penguin }} Further criticism extends to the presumption that behavior increases only when it is reinforced. This premise is at odds with research conducted by Albert Bandura at Stanford University. His findings indicate that violent behavior is imitated, without being reinforced, in studies conducted with children watching films showing various individuals "beating the daylights out of Bobo". Bandura believes that human personality and learning is the result of the interaction between environment, behavior and psychological process. There is evidence, however, that imitation is a class of behavior that can be learned just like anything else. Children have been shown to imitate behavior that they have never displayed before and are never reinforced for, after being taught to imitate in general.D. Baer, R.F.; Peterson, J.A. Sherman Psychological Modeling: Conflicting Theories, 2006 {{ISBN? |date=August 2023}}

Based on the early improper use of behavior modification techniques, substantial emphasis has been placed on the importance of ethics and licensure.{{Cite journal |last1=Sellers |first1=Tyra P. |last2=Seniuk |first2=Holly A. |last3=Lichtenberger |first3=Sarah N. |last4=Carr |first4=James E. |date=2023-05-16 |title=The History of the Behavior Analyst Certification Board's Ethics Codes |journal=Behavior Analysis in Practice |language=en |doi=10.1007/s40617-023-00803-2 |issn=2196-8934|doi-access=free }} Ethics is paramount because it ensures that practitioners prioritize the well-being, dignity, and rights of their clients. Given the vulnerable populations often served by ABA professionals, such as individuals with developmental disabilities, maintaining high ethical standards helps prevent exploitation, harm, and abuse. In today's era, The Behavior Analyst Certification Board (BACB) Code of Ethics is a comprehensive framework that guides behavior analysts in their professional conduct. For instance, Code 1.04 emphasizes the importance of integrity, urging behavior analysts to be honest and truthful in their professional dealings. Code 2.01 mandates the prioritization of client dignity and welfare, ensuring that the client's needs come first. Code 2.06 requires informed consent, meaning clients must be fully aware of and agree to the interventions used. Confidentiality is protected under Code 2.07, which ensures that all client information is kept private and secure. Additionally, Code 3.01 stresses the necessity of providing evidence-based treatments, ensuring interventions are scientifically supported and effective. By adhering to these and other ethical guidelines, behavior analysts foster trust, promote positive outcomes, and uphold the integrity of the field.

• Behavioural change theories
• Behavior change (public health)
• Behavior management
• Behavior therapy
• Covert conditioning
• Decoupling for body-focused repetitive behaviors
• Habit reversal training
• Pain model of behaviour management
• Positive behavior interventions and supports
• Token economy

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