body language

Facial expression is an important part of body language and the expression of emotion. It can comprise movement of the eyes, eyebrows, lips, nose and cheeks.

At one point, researchers believed that making a genuine smile was nearly impossible to do on command. More recently, however, a study conducted by researchers at Northeastern University found that people could convincingly fake a Duchenne smile, even when they were not feeling especially happy.Brunstein, A. (2007). Eye to I (Doctoral dissertation, Massachusetts Institute of Technology).

The action of the pupil corresponds to mood and communicate the mood of a person when observed. Research has found that people have no control over their pupils, which involuntarily expand when expressing interest in another person or when looking at something.{{cite web|url=https://www.psychologistworld.com/body-language/eyes|title=How To Read Anyone's Body Language Using Eye Signals|last=thinking|first=What someone's eyes can tell you about what they are|website=www.psychologistworld.com|date=30 November 2001|access-date=2019-01-17}}{{Better source needed|reason=The current source is insufficiently reliable (WP:NOTRS).|date=September 2024}} Normally, eyes instinctively blink at around 20 times per minute, but looking at a person the viewer finds attractive can make this rate faster.{{Cite web |title=Butler Newsroom {{!}} 9 Wordless Ways Someone Says, "I Love You" |url=https://news.butler.edu/blog/2012/01/9-wordless-ways-someone-says-i-love-you/ |access-date=2024-02-20 |website=news.butler.edu}}{{Better source needed|reason=The current source is insufficiently reliable (WP:NOTRS).|date=September 2024}} The eyes can communicate information that words may not be able to, the intensity and duration of eye contact can determine someone’s intentions depending on the setting. According to the academic researcher Deepika, in the workplace, strong eye contact is usually translated as sincerity and open communication. Furthermore, there are instances where people use closed communication, which refers to when people seem resistant to communication, for example, the avoidance of eye contact or crossed arms are interpreted as lack of interest regardless of whether it is intentional or subconscious.

Studies and behavioral experiments have shown that facial expressions and bodily expressions are congruent in terms of conveying visible signs of a person's emotional state, and that emotions can be judged with a high level of accuracy based on facial expressions.{{cite journal|last1=Gu|first1=Yuanyuan|last2=Mai|first2=Xiaoqin|last3=Luo|first3=Yue-jia|last4=Di Russo|first4=Francesco|title=Do Bodily Expressions Compete with Facial Expressions? Time Course of Integration of Emotional Signals from the Face and the Body|journal=PLOS ONE|date=23 July 2013|volume=8|issue=7|pages=e66762|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0066762|pmid=23935825|pmc=3720771|bibcode=2013PLoSO...866762G|doi-access=free}}{{cite journal|last1=Kret|first1=ME|last2=Pichon|first2=S|last3=Grezes|first3=J|last4=de Gelder|first4=B|title=Similarities and differences in perceiving threat from dynamic faces and bodies. An fMRI study|journal=NeuroImage|date=Jan 15, 2011|volume=54|issue=2|pages=1755–1762|pmid=20723605|doi=10.1016/j.neuroimage.2010.08.012|s2cid=533689|url=https://pure.uvt.nl/ws/files/1395412/NeuroPsy_Kret_Nueroimage_2011.pdf}} At the same time, the brain processes another person's facial and bodily expressions simultaneously.

The movement of the head can indicate various intentions and messages, and is often culture and context-dependent.

The angle of facing and positioning of a person's head can be indicative of their mood, when considered along with patterns of muscular tension that occur concurrently at the face and neck.{{Notetag|For example, the posture of the body has a corresponding pattern of muscle tension i.e. how muscles in the face and neck are contracted or relaxed while the person's head is tilted. This relationship is instinctively observed in conjunction with a person's posture. Men and women have been found to be perceived differently in regard to this relationship between posture and muscle tension.{{cite journal |last1=Mignault, Alain & Chaudhuri, Avi |title=The many faces of a neutral face: Head tilt and perception of dominance and emotion |journal=Journal of Nonverbal Behavior |date=2003 |volume=27 |issue=2 |pages=111–132 |doi=10.1023/A:1023914509763 |s2cid=73547442 |url=https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1023914509763 |access-date=9 February 2023}} According to Alain Mignault and Avi Chaudhuri and considered in regard to smiling:

{{Blockquote|Indeed, a bowed head probably leads raters to perceive the contraction of the Zygomatic Major (Action Unit 12) and a raised head to perceive the contraction of the Triangularis (Action Unit 15). Second, although we found no significant difference in the perception of mouth contraction at zero degrees between male and female actors, a large difference is perceived at other head angles even though the expression itself is fixed.{{cite journal |last1=Mignault, Alain & Chaudhuri, Avi |title=The many faces of a neutral face: Head tilt and perception of dominance and emotion |journal=Journal of Nonverbal Behavior |date=2003 |volume=27 |issue=2 |page=128 |doi=10.1023/A:1023914509763 |s2cid=73547442 |url=https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1023914509763 |access-date=9 February 2023}}}}

Such a correspondence can be deliberately manipulated to produce different effects. For example, an actor can pose in a confident manner, while relaxing muscles in the neck which would ordinarily be more contracted in conjunction with the pose. He may thereby make it appear that he is actually afraid and the pose is merely an attempt to appear confident.}} Tilting the head up may demonstrate 'superiority emotions' such as self-assurance, pride, or contempt.{{cite journal |last1=Mignault |first1=Alain |last2=Chaudhuri |first2=Avi |date=2003 |title=The many faces of a neutral face: Head tilt and perception of dominance and emotion |url=https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1023914509763 |journal=Journal of Nonverbal Behavior |volume=27 |issue=2 |pages=111–132 |doi=10.1023/A:1023914509763 |s2cid=73547442 |access-date=9 February 2023}} When it is tilted down, this may indicate 'inferiority emotions' such as shame, shyness, or respect.{{cite journal |last1=Mignault, Alain & Chaudhuri, Avi |date=2003 |title=The many faces of a neutral face: Head tilt and perception of dominance and emotion |url=https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1023914509763 |journal=Journal of Nonverbal Behavior |volume=27 |issue=2 |pages=111–132 |doi=10.1023/A:1023914509763 |s2cid=73547442 |access-date=9 February 2023}} Nonetheless, the accuracy of such interpretation depends on the intensity of the feeling or other context-related factors. For instance, feelings of contentment may instead feature the head being angled down somewhat.

In many cultures, nodding of the head is considered a sign of saying 'yes', while shaking the head is usually interpreted as meaning 'no'. In India, a head bobble is the tilting of the head from side to side, whose interpretation can be ambiguous and context-dependent.{{cite book |last1=Lewis |first1=Hedgwig |title=Body Language |date=2012 |publisher=Sage |isbn=9788132116905 |chapter=The Head and Torso: Wobbling}}{{Better source needed|reason=The current source is insufficiently reliable (WP:NOTRS).|date=September 2024}}

A tilting of the head to the side can be an expression of interest in what the other person is communicating. It may be a sign of curiosity, uncertainty, or questioning. If the head is propped up by the hand when the head is tilted then this may indicate disinterest or be a sign of thinking about something. A head that is tilted forwards slightly while being pulled backward may indicate being suspicious.{{cite book |last1=Lewis |first1=Hedgwig |title=Body Language |date=2012 |publisher=Sage |isbn=9788132116905 |chapter=The Head and Torso}}{{Better source needed|reason=The current source is insufficiently reliable (WP:NOTRS).|date=September 2024}}

As a person's vocal chords are influenced physically by the tilt of their head and the respective pattern of muscle tension, it is possible to discern their head tilt by listening to how they talk. Head angle and movement have a large impact on the amplitude and pitch of one's speech. {{cite book |last1=Treasure |first1=Julian |title=How to be Heard |date=2017 |publisher=Mango |isbn=978-1633536715 |chapter=Posture |quote=Your voice starts with your posture, especially the angle of your neck because your vocal chords are physically altered when you move your head forward, backward, or side to side.}}Munhall, K.G., Jones, J.A., Callan, D.E., Kuratate, T., & Vatikiotis-Bateson, E. (2004). Visual Prosody and Speech Intelligibility. Psychological Science, 15, 133 - 137.

File:Florence Carlyle The Tiff.jpg ({{Circa|1902}})]]

Emotions can also be detected through body postures. Research has shown that body postures are more accurately recognized when an emotion is compared with a different or neutral emotion.{{cite journal|last1=Mondloch|first1=Catherine J.|last2=Nelson|first2=Nicole L.|last3=Horner|first3=Matthew|last4=Pavlova|first4=Marina|title=Asymmetries of Influence: Differential Effects of Body Postures on Perceptions of Emotional Facial Expressions|journal=PLOS ONE|date=10 September 2013|volume=8|issue=9|pages=e73605|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0073605|pmid=24039996|pmc=3769306|bibcode=2013PLoSO...873605M|doi-access=free}} For example, a person feeling angry would portray dominance over the other, and their posture would display approach tendencies. Comparing this to a person feeling fearful: they would feel weak, and submissive and their posture would display avoidance tendencies.

Sitting or standing postures can also indicate one's emotions. A person sitting still in the back of their chair, leaning forward with their head nodding along with the discussion implies that they are open, relaxed and generally ready to listen. On the other hand, a person who has their legs and arms crossed with the foot kicking could imply that they are feeling impatient and emotionally detached from the discussion.{{cite journal |last1=Kurien |first1=Daisy N |date=March 1, 2010 |title=Body Language: Silent Communicator at the Workplace |journal=IUP Journal of Soft Skills |volume=4 |issue=1/2 |pages=29–36}}{{Better source needed|reason=The current source is insufficiently reliable (WP:NOTRS).|date=July 2023}} In a standing discussion, a person standing with arms akimbo with feet pointed towards the speaker could suggest that they are attentive and interested in the conversation.{{Better source needed|reason=The current source is insufficiently reliable (WP:NOTRS).|date=July 2023}} While many people attribute bodily posture purely to individual expression, there is evidence that points to posture as a product of cultural norms.Scheflen, A. E. (1964). The Significance of Posture in Communication Systems†. Psychiatry, 27(4), 316–331. https://doi.org/10.1080/00332747.1964.11023403

In Bali, standing with arms akimbo is considered rude and may send signals of aggression.{{Cite journal |last=Wikan |first=Unni |date=1987 |title=Public Grace and Private Fears: Gaiety, Offense, and Sorcery in Northern Bali |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/640343 |journal=Ethos |volume=15 |issue=4 |pages=337–365 |doi=10.1525/eth.1987.15.4.02a00010 |jstor=640343 |issn=0091-2131}}

In general, the relative fullness or shallowness of the chest, especially around the sternum, can be a key indicator of both mood and attitude.

When the body language of the chest is assessed in everyday circumstances, it involves an instinctive assessment of these factors of shape and volume. When the posture of the chest is fuller, and it is positioned relatively forward, then this is a sign of confidence. If it is thrusting prominently forward, then this may be an indication that the person wants to be socially prominent and make a statement of physical confidence. When the chest is pulled back then this can indicate a less confident attitude.{{Citation needed|date=July 2023}}

If a person positions their chest closer towards another person it may be a sign of paying closer attention to them as part of a conversation, or, in other circumstances, it may be a sign of physical assertion and aggression.{{cite book |last1=Coon, Dennis |first1=& Mitterer, John O. |title=Introduction to Psychology: Gateways to Mind and Behavior |date=2010 |publisher=Wadsworth, Cengage Learning |isbn=978-0-495-59913-5 |page=348 |edition=12th}}

Gestures are movements made with body parts and may be voluntary or involuntary. Gestures can be used to convey various messages about what someone is thinking or feeling. Gestures can even be used to produce language, such as sign language.S. P. More and A. Sattar, "Hand gesture recognition system using image processing," 2016 International Conference on Electrical, Electronics, and Optimization Techniques (ICEEOT), Chennai, India, 2016, pp. 671-675, doi: 10.1109/ICEEOT.2016.7754766. keywords: {Gesture recognition;Feature extraction;Assistive technology;Image segmentation;Algorithm design and analysis;Lighting;Image color analysis;Introduction;Literature survey;Pre-Processing and Segmentation;Feature Extraction;PCA method},

Arm gestures can be interpreted in several ways. In a discussion, when one stands, sits or even walks with folded arms, it is normally not a welcoming gesture. It could mean that they have a closed mind and are most likely unwilling to listen to the speaker's viewpoint. Another type of arm gesture also includes an arm crossed over the other, demonstrating insecurity and a lack of confidence.{{Better source needed|reason=The current source is insufficiently reliable (WP:NOTRS).|date=July 2023}} Hand gestures often signify the state of well-being of the person making them. Relaxed hands indicate confidence and self-assurance, while clenched hands may be interpreted as signs of stress or anger. If a person is wringing their hands, this demonstrates nervousness and anxiety.{{Better source needed|reason=The current source is insufficiently reliable (WP:NOTRS).|date=July 2023}}

Finger gestures are also commonly used to exemplify one's speech as well as denote the state of well-being of the person making them. In certain cultures, pointing using one's index finger is deemed acceptable. However, pointing at a person may be viewed as aggressive in other cultures – for example, people who share Hindu beliefs consider finger pointing offensive. Instead, they point with a palm up open hand.{{cite journal|last1=Black|first1=Roxie M.|title=Cultural Considerations of Hand Use|journal=Journal of Hand Therapy|date=2011|volume=24|issue=2|pages=104–11|doi=10.1016/j.jht.2010.09.067|pmid=21109395}} Likewise, the thumbs up gesture could show "OK" or "good" in countries like the United States, South Africa, France, Lebanon and Germany. But this same gesture is insulting in other countries like Iran, Bangladesh and Thailand, where it is the equivalent of showing the middle finger in some cultures.

It is difficult to distinguish a behavior motivated by an out-group bias—a negative response to a member of a different group—from one fueled by stereotype effect—a cognitive association between members of a specific out-group and a culturally held belief.{{Cite journal|last1=Hinzman|first1=Lindsay|last2=Kelly|first2=Spencer D.|date=2013-01-01|title=Effects of emotional body language on rapid out-group judgments|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0022103112001448|journal=Journal of Experimental Social Psychology|language=en|volume=49|issue=1|pages=152–155|doi=10.1016/j.jesp.2012.07.010|issn=0022-1031}} Some behaviors are unique to some cultures, which leads to the outgroup having a harder time decoding the information, these interactions could lead to out-group bias. An example of a cultural difference in non-verbal communication is between Americans and the Greek. Americans nod up and down to indicate “yes” while they nod side to side to indicate “no”. On the other hand, the Greek nod upwards to indicate “no” and downwards to indicate “yes”. During American Greek interactions, the cultures clash and have a harder time decoding the non-verbal cues.{{Cite journal |last=Kirch |first=Max S. |date=1979 |title=Non-Verbal Communication across Cultures |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/326027 |journal=The Modern Language Journal |volume=63 |issue=8 |pages=416–423 |doi=10.2307/326027 |jstor=326027 |issn=0026-7902}}

Another way that out-group bias could be created is through low and high contact cultures. Low contact cultures are more individualistic, while high contact cultures are collectivistic. Low contact cultures express mostly verbally, and use less of the non-verbal cues, while high contact cultures use both forms of communication at the same time. People from low contact cultures could face a hard time decoding the gestures from those of high contact cultures, this can lead to out-group bias.{{Cite web |last=Lui |first=Meina |date=2016 |title=high-contact cultures |url=https://www.oxfordreference.com/display/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803095935808 |access-date=2024-12-13 |website=Oxford Reference |language=en }}

Handshakes are regular greeting rituals and commonly used when meeting, greeting, offering congratulations, expressing camaraderie, or after the completion of an agreement.HALL, P. & SPENCER HALL, D. (1983). The handshake as interaction. Semiotica, 45(3-4), 249-264. https://doi.org/10.1515/semi.1983.45.3-4.249 Research has shown that handshakes can improve the accuracy of first impressions, particularly in judging conscientiousness, especially among men.Bernieri, F. J., & Petty, K. N. (2011). The influence of handshakes on first impression accuracy. Social Influence, 6(2), 78–87. https://doi.org/10.1080/15534510.2011.566706 In negotiations, handshakes promote cooperative behavior and lead to better outcomes in both integrative and distributive scenarios. Negotiators who shake hands are more likely to openly reveal their preferences and craft fairer agreements.Schroeder, Juliana and Risen, Jane and Gino, Francesca and Norton, Michael I., Handshaking Promotes Cooperative Dealmaking (May 30, 2014). Harvard Business School NOM Unit Working Paper No. 14-117, Harvard Business School Marketing Unit Working Paper No. 14-117, Available at SSRN: https://ssrn.com/abstract=2443674 or http://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.2443674

Studies have categorized several handshake styles, including the finger squeeze, the bone crusher (shaking hands too strongly), the limp fish (shaking hands too weakly), etc. Handshakes are popular in the United States and are appropriate for use between men and women. However, in Muslim cultures, men may not shake hands or touch women in any way and vice versa. Likewise, in Hindu cultures, Hindu men may never shake hands with women. Instead, they greet women by placing their hands as if praying.{{Citation needed|date=May 2020}}

A firm, friendly handshake has long been recommended in the business world as a way to make a good first impression, and the greeting is thought to date to ancient times as a way of showing a stranger you had no weapons.{{cite web|last1=Ramadas|first1=Nidhin|title=Handshake|url=http://beckman.illinois.edu/news/2012/10/dolcoshandshake|website=Beckman Institute|access-date=13 September 2016}}

Body language related to breathing and patterns of breathing can be indicative of a person's mood and state of mind.{{Citation needed|date=May 2020}}

{{Main|Oculesics}}

Oculesics, a subcategory of body language, is the study of eye movement, eye behavior, gaze, and eye-related nonverbal communication.

As a social or behavioral science, oculesics is a form of nonverbal communication focusing on deriving meaning from eye behavior.{{cite book | last=Sullivan | first=Larry E. | title=The Sage Glossary of the Social and Behavioral Sciences | publisher=Sqge Publications | edition =illustrated | date=31 August 2009 | page=577 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0YE3C4HMnsoC&q=%22The+study+of+eye+contact+in+nonverbal+communication+or+use+of+the+eyes+in+communication%22&pg=PT396 | isbn=978-1412951432}} Oculesics is culturally dependent. For example, in traditional Anglo-Saxon culture, avoiding eye contact usually portrays a lack of confidence, certainty, or truthfulness.{{cite journal | last=Cruz | first=William | title=Differences In Nonverbal Communication Styles between Cultures: The Latino-Anglo Perspective | journal=Leadership and Management in Engineering | volume=1 | issue=4 | pages=51–53 | url=http://www.mendeley.com/catalog/differences-nonverbal-communication-styles-between-cultures-latinoanglo-perspective/#page-1 | issn=1532-6748 | doi=10.1061/(ASCE)1532-6748(2001)1:4(51) | access-date=14 October 2014| year=2001 | doi-access=free }} However, in the Latino culture, direct or prolonged eye contact means that you are challenging the individual with whom you are speaking or that you have a romantic interest in the person. Also, in many Asian cultures, prolonged eye contact may be a sign of anger or aggression.

{{Main|Haptic communication}}

Research has also shown that people can accurately decode distinct emotions by merely watching others communicate via touch.{{cite journal | last1 =Hertenstein | first1 =Matthew J. | last2 =Keltner | first2 =Dacher | last3 =App | first3 =Betsy | last4 =Bulleit | first4 =Brittany A. | last5 =Jaskolka | first5 = Ariane R. | title = Touch Communicates Distinct Emotions | journal =Emotion | volume =6 | issue =3 | pages =528–533 | year =2006 | url = http://socrates.berkeley.edu/~keltner/publications/hertenstein.2006.pdf | doi = 10.1037/1528-3542.6.3.528| pmid =16938094 | citeseerx =10.1.1.421.2391 }} A study by Jones and Yarbrough{{cite journal |last1=Jones |first1=Stanley E. & A. Elaine Yarbrough |last2=Yarbrough |first2=A. Elaine |date=1985 |title=A naturalistic study of the meanings of touch |journal=Communication Monographs |volume=52 |issue=1 |pages=19–56 |doi=10.1080/03637758509376094}} regarded communication with touch as the most intimate and involving form which helps people to keep good relationships with others. For example, Jones and Yarbrough explained that strategic touching is a series of touching usually with an ulterior or hidden motive thus making them seem to be using touch as a game to get someone to do something for them.

Heslin outlines five haptic categories:Heslin, R. (May 1974). "Steps toward a taxonomy of touching". Paper presented to the annual meeting of the Midwestern Psychological Association, Chicago

• Functional/professional: This expresses task-orientation.
• Social/polite: This expresses ritual interaction.
• Friendship/warmth: This expresses idiosyncratic relationship.{{Clarify|date=July 2023}}
• Love/intimacy: This expresses emotional attachment. Public touch can serve as a 'tie sign' that shows others that your partner is "taken".{{cite book | last =Morris | first =Desmond|author-link=Desmond Morris | title = Manwatching: A Field Guide to Human Behavior | publisher =Abrams | edition =illustrated | date =1977 | page =[https://archive.org/details/manwatchingfield0000morr/page/320 320] | url = https://archive.org/details/manwatchingfield0000morr | url-access =registration | isbn = 978-0810913103}} When a couple is holding hands, putting their arms around each other, this is a 'tie sign' showing others that they are together. The use of 'tie signs' are used more often by couples in the dating and courtship stages than between their married counterparts.{{cite book | last1 =Burgoon | first1 =Judee K. | last2 =Buller | first2 =David B. | last3 =Woodall | first3 =William Gill | title =Nonverbal Communication: The Unspoken Dialogue | publisher =McGraw-Hill | edition =2nd | date =1996 | isbn =978-0070089952 | url =https://archive.org/details/nonverbalcommuni00burg }}
• Sexual/arousal: This expresses sexual intent.

{{Main|Proxemics}}

File:Personal Space.svg's interpersonal distances of man, showing radius in feet and meters]]

Another notable area in the nonverbal world of body language is that of spatial relationships, which is also known as proxemics. Introduced by Edward T. Hall in 1966, proxemics is the study of measurable distances between people as they interact with one another.Hall, Edward T. (1966). The Hidden Dimension. Anchor Books. {{ISBN|0385084765}} Hall came up with four distinct zones in which most people operate:

Intimate distance for embracing, touching or whispering

: Close phase – less than 6 inches (15 cm)

: Far phase – 6 to 18 inches (15 to 46 cm)

Personal distance for interactions among good friends or family members

: Close phase – 1.5 to 2.5 feet (46 to 76 cm)

: Far phase – 2.5 to 4 feet (76 to 122 cm)

Social distance for interactions among acquaintances

: Close phase – 4 to 7 feet (1.2 to 2.1 m)

: Far phase – 7 to 12 feet (2.1 to 3.7 m)

Public Distance used for public speaking

: Close phase – 12 to 25 feet (3.7 to 7.6 m)

: Far phase – 25 feet (7.6 m) or more.

In addition to physical distance, the level of intimacy between conversants can be determined by "socio-petal socio-fugal axis", or the "angle formed by the axis of the conversants' shoulders".Moore, Nina (2010). Nonverbal Communication: Studies and Applications. New York: Oxford University Press.{{ISBN?}}

Changing the distance between two people can convey a desire for intimacy, declare a lack of interest, or increase/decrease domination.{{cite web|title=The significance of Body Language |url=http://www.haverford.edu/fren/dkight/Fr105Spr08/weekFour/proxemics.pdf |access-date=14 October 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100401003428/http://www.haverford.edu/fren/dkight/Fr105Spr08/weekFour/proxemics.pdf |archive-date=1 April 2010 }} It can also influence the body language that is used. For example, when people talk they like to face each other. If forced to sit side by side, their body language will try to compensate for this lack of eye-to-eye contact by leaning in shoulder-to-shoulder.

As with other types of body language, proximity range varies with culture. Hall suggested that "physical contact between two people ... can be perfectly correct in one culture, and absolutely taboo in another".{{cite journal | last =Hall | first =Edward T. | title =Proxemics | journal = Current Anthropology | volume = 9 | issue =2/3 | pages =83–108 | date = 1968 | url = http://e-edu.nbu.bg/pluginfile.php/330719/mod_resource/content/2/E-T-Hall_-_Proxemics_-_with_commentaries.pdf | jstor = 2740724 | access-date =14 October 2014 | doi=10.1086/200975| s2cid =147398417 }}

{{Main|Emotional prosody}}{{Unreferenced section|date=July 2023}}

Certain body postures can significantly influence the tone of voice. The intra-abdominal pressure (IAP) is a direct influence on, and discernible in, tone of voice. Pitch, intonation, speed, and volume impact the way messages are decoded. The pitch of someone’s voice can be interpreted in different ways, a high-pitched voice is associated with excitement, while a low voice is associated with seriousness. The intonation of a statement can helps people determine if a claim is being made or if a question is being asked. Statements with a rising intonation are usually questions. The speed and volume at which someone speaks helps determine the emotion behind the statement. For example, a loud-quick paced tone of voice is associated with urgency and anger, on the other hand, a slow-soft voice is associated with calmness and tenderness.{{Cite journal |last1=Guyer |first1=Joshua J. |last2=Briñol |first2=Pablo |last3=Vaughan-Johnston |first3=Thomas I. |last4=Fabrigar |first4=Leandre R. |last5=Moreno |first5=Lorena |last6=Petty |first6=Richard E. |date=2021 |title=Paralinguistic Features Communicated through Voice can Affect Appraisals of Confidence and Evaluative Judgments |journal=Journal of Nonverbal Behavior |volume=45 |issue=4 |pages=479–504 |doi=10.1007/s10919-021-00374-2 |issn=0191-5886 |pmc=8553728 |pmid=34744233}}

File:Mehrabian.png

{{blockquote|text=Human communication is extremely complex and one must look at the whole in order to make any determination as to the attitudes being expressed.Loh, Wallace D. (1984). Social Research in the Judicial Process, New York: Russell Sage Foundation, p. 398{{ISBN?}}}}

Body language is a major contributor to the attitude a person conveys to others. Albert Mehrabian maintains that during a conversation dealing with feelings and attitudes (i.e., like-dislike), 7% of what is communicated is via what is said, 38% is via tone of voice, and the majority, 55%, is via body language. This is also referred to as the '7%–38%–55% Rule',{{cite web|url= http://www.kaaj.com/psych/smorder.html |title='Silent Messages' – A Wealth of Information About Nonverbal Communication (Body Language)|last=Mehrabian|first=Albert|year=2009|work=Personality & Emotion Tests & Software: Psychological Books & Articles of Popular Interest|publisher=self-published|location=Los Angeles|access-date=October 23, 2018}} and is often considered in studies of human communications. While there is a wider debate about the percentage share which should be attributed to each of the three contributing factors, it is generally agreed upon that body language plays a fundamental role in determining the attitude a person conveys.

A person may alter their body language in order to alter the attitude they convey; this may in turn influence the rapport they have with another person. Whether a formal or informal attitude is conveyed may influence the other person's response.{{Citation needed|date=July 2023}}

Body language which expresses trust will usually convey a sense of openness and warmth. Contrarily, mistrusting body language will appear relatively closed and cold. Body language which conveys a sense of trust can vary depending on the nature of the relationship.{{cite book |title=Job Readiness for Health Professionals |date=2021 |publisher=Elsevier |isbn=978-0323430265 |pages=140–141}}{{cite book |last1=Agochiya |first1=Davendra |title=Life Competencies for Growth and Success A Trainer's Manual |date=2018 |publisher=Sage publications |isbn=978-9352805280 |page=142}}{{Better source needed|reason=The current source is insufficiently reliable (WP:NOTRS).|date=July 2023}}

Nonverbal communication has a significant impact on doctor-patient relationships, as it affects how open patients are with their doctor. Having open body language, which is typically identified as having a relaxed posture, nodding, eye contact can contribute to patients having higher levels of trust with their doctors. According to, W.Y. Kee, patients who had a doctor that avoided eye contact by looking at a screen or had negative facial expressions contributed to patients feeling dissatisfied after their visit.{{Cite journal |last1=Kee |first1=Janine W. Y. |last2=Khoo |first2=Hwee Sing |last3=Lim |first3=Issac |last4=Koh |first4=Mervyn Y. H. |date=2018-06-01 |title=Communication Skills in Patient-Doctor Interactions: Learning from Patient Complaints |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2452301116301225 |journal=Health Professions Education |volume=4 |issue=2 |pages=97–106 |doi=10.1016/j.hpe.2017.03.006 |issn=2452-3011|doi-access=free }}

The way body language is expressed changes depending on the gender and age of the person. Women and men express body language differently, especially in the workplace, women tend to express more intense nonverbal cues than men, this makes the cues easier to decode. These nonverbal signals impact the way men and women interact in the workplace, as according to Deepika, women tend be highly comfortable being close and communicating with other women. This is hypothesized to be the case because people that demonstrate similar nonverbal cues can interpret and decode communication signals more effectively.{{Cite web |last=Phutela |first=Deepika |date=2015 |title=The Importance of Non-Verbal Communication |url=https://www.proquest.com/docview/1759007009 |access-date=2024-12-10 |website=www.proquest.com |id={{ProQuest|1759007009}} |language=en}}

Body language which conveys trust in a business context is done so in a formal manner and in line with business etiquette.{{cite book |last1=Wezowski, Wezowski |first1=Kasia, Patryk |title=Without Saying a Word: Master the Science of Body Language and Maximize Your Success |date=2018 |publisher=HarperCollins Leadership |isbn=978-0814439746 |pages=89–90, 98, 116}} In the world of business, the power structures that tend to exist are communicated non-verbally. Nonverbal dominance refers to how people communicate power, control, and authority using gestures, posture, facial expressions, and voice.{{Cite book |last=Manusov |first=Valerie |title=The Sourcebook of Nonverbal Measures: Going Beyond Words |date=2005 |publisher=Psychology Press |isbn=9780805847475 |edition=1st |language=en}} Nonverbal dominance becomes important in these business settings because it could impact sales and business relationships. For example, ‘adaptors’ refers to touching an object or oneself during a conversation or presentation. These communicate nervousness and uncertainty, which contributes to a lower rate of persuasiveness, this can lead to lower sales.{{Cite web |last=Puckett |first=Adam |date=2020 |title=Body Language and Sales |url=https://digitalcommons.georgiasouthern.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1590&context=honors-theses |access-date= |website=georgiasouthern.edu}}

Some examples of how people decode nonverbal dominance are silence, loud voices, and a non-smiling face.{{Cite journal |last1=Burgoon |first1=Judee K. |last2=Wang |first2=Xinran |last3=Chen |first3=Xunyu |last4=Pentland |first4=Steven J. |last5=Dunbar |first5=Norah E. |date=2021 |title=Nonverbal Behaviors "Speak" Relational Messages of Dominance, Trust, and Composure |journal=Frontiers in Psychology |volume=12 |pages=624177 |doi=10.3389/fpsyg.2021.624177 |doi-access=free |issn=1664-1078 |pmc=7870468 |pmid=33574790}} The study carried out by Burgoon demonstrated how participants could use nonverbal cues better to understand each other during a game of mafia. During the game, the participants had to take on different roles (spies or villagers) which had various levels of authority, as a result, participants adapted their body language to the role they played in the game. The study demonstrated that the spies were less dominant and more trustworthy, while the leader of the group was more dominant and demonstrated this dominance through their loud voice and upright posture. Overall, the study was able to demonstrate a correlation between the participants’ role and how they adapted their body language to match the level of dominance.

{{main | Friendship}}

Body language between friends is typically more expressive and informal than body language in business.{{cite book |last1=Wezowski, Wezowski |first1=Kasia, Patryk |title=Without Saying a Word: Master the Science of Body Language and Maximize Your Success |date=2018 |publisher=HarperCollins Leadership |isbn=978-0814439746 |pages=34–35}} In casual settings, people display a lack of dominance more casually. For example, they may show more expressive facial expressions, nodding, and hand gestures. These nonverbal cues display open-body language, which contributes to improved communication among friends. These displays of body language may increase trust between friends, as nonverbal and verbal communication work together to form a clearer message. Body language in friendships can sometimes mean certain handshakes or gestures towards one another. It may also correlate to some sort of meaning for a certain idea or thing.

{{main | Intimate relationship}}

The body language of trust in intimate relationships such as courtship and marriage is very open and often highly personalized, even if it is not necessarily as physically dynamic as that found in a friendship for example. In Western contexts holding hands is a common sign between intimate partners that expresses their affection and trust in each other. Trust is also conveyed in intimate relationships through people caressing and kissing each other. These actions are designed to convey openness and warmth in a highly personalised way. Each partner is communicating to the other that they are attracted to them and also that they trust them and are allowing them to touch them in a more intimate way than would otherwise be acceptable. Such body language may be established gradually over a period of courtship. The body language of intimate relationships cannot be used acceptably in non-intimate relationships.{{cite book |last1=Adrian Furnham |first1=Evgeniya Petrova |title=Body Language in Business: Decoding the Signals |date=2010 |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |isbn=978-0230241466 |page=154}}

When people are in an intimate relationship, they often position themselves closer to each other than if they were in a different kind of relationship. Even though it may only be a small distance closer together, an observer can interpret this additional closeness to mean that they are in an intimate relationship. For example, spouses may sit, stand, and walk in each other's intimate space, whereas business colleagues may maintain more of a distance and outside of each other's intimate space. As the spouses are in an intimate relationship, they do not feel the need to maintain the same distance as the business colleagues.{{cite book |last1=Eggert |first1=Max A. |title=Understanding Body Language |date=2014 |publisher=Pearson Educational Limited |isbn=978-1292084596 |edition=1}}

{{blockquote|text=When you get onto a basketball court, all your teammates beside you, pumped up and ready to go, you form impressions of the other side, their strength and unity, their mood and body language. Of course the physicality element is stronger in sport, but something similar happens in politics, where you can read the mood of one side or the other simply by looking at them, sitting there all together.Campbell, Alastair, 'The Team Player: Edi Rama' in Winners: And How They Succeed, London: Arrow Books, p.143}}

Body language can convey the impression of a readiness to take action. While this is always observable in the physical sense it can be further categorised as being 'readiness for physical exertion' or 'readiness for social interaction'. Noting that a person will typically be ready for both at any given time, and such categorisations are based upon which course of action they are primarily ready for at that moment. Such states of readiness influence the person's whole body, tone of voice, and what impression they convey through their body language. A state of increased readiness may also be referred to as being in a state of high energy or intensity. Relative to states of unreadiness, most states of readiness typically involve a deeper breathing pattern, increased excitation of the nervous system, and an increased heart rate. Such physiological effects also influence the person's skin and its fullness of appearance. In relative terms, a person's skin will usually look fuller and more taut while in a state of readiness, and thinner and more flaccid in a state of unreadiness. A readiness for physical exertion typically means that these effects are increased further in terms of their intensity and visual prominence.

Harvard professor Amy Cuddy suggested in 2010 that two minutes of power posing – "standing tall, holding your arms out or toward the sky, or standing like Superman, with your hands on hips" – could increase confidence,{{cite news |last1=Haden |first1=Jeff |title=8 Powerful Ways to Improve Your Body Language |url=https://www.inc.com/jeff-haden/8-powerful-ways-to-improve-your-body-language.html |newspaper=Inc.com |date=5 December 2013 |access-date=29 December 2019}} but retracted the advice and stopped teaching it after a 2015 study was unable to replicate the effect.{{cite web |url=http://faculty.haas.berkeley.edu/dana_carney/pdf_my%20position%20on%20power%20poses.pdf |title=My position on "Power Poses" |first=Dana R. |last=Carney |access-date=23 March 2021 |date=nd}}

Scholars have long debated on whether body language, particularly facial expressions, are universally understood. In Darwin's evolutionary theory, he postulated that facial expressions of emotion are inherited.{{cite journal|last1=Ekman|first1=Paul|title=Universals and cultural differences in facial expression of emotion|journal=Nebraska Symposium on Motivation|date=1971|volume=19|pages=207–283|url=http://www.ekmaninternational.com/ResearchFiles/Universals-And-Cultural-Differences-In-Facial-Expressions-Of.pdf|access-date=2014-10-13|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140411050638/http://www.ekmaninternational.com/ResearchFiles/Universals-And-Cultural-Differences-In-Facial-Expressions-Of.pdf|archive-date=2014-04-11|url-status=dead}} On the other hand, scholars have questioned if culture influences one's bodily expression of emotions. Broadly, the theories can be categorized into two models: the cultural equivalence model and cultural advantage model.

The cultural equivalence model predicts that "individuals should be equally accurate in understanding the emotions of ingroup and outgroup members". This model is rooted in Darwin's evolutionary theory, where he noted that both humans and animals share similar postural expressions of emotions such as anger/aggression, happiness, and fear.{{cite journal|last1=Soto|first1=Jose Angel|last2=Levenson|first2=Robert W.|title=Emotion recognition across cultures: The influence of ethnicity on empathic accuracy and physiological linkage|journal=Emotion|date=2009|volume=9|issue=6|pages=874–884|doi=10.1037/a0017399|pmid=20001130|pmc=2877627}} These similarities support the evolution argument that social animals (including humans) have a natural ability to relay emotional signals with one another, a notion shared by several academics (Chevalier-Skolnikoff, 1974; Linnankoski, Laakso, Aulanko, & Leinonen, 1994). Where Darwin notes similarity in expression among animals and humans, the Cultural Equivalence Model notes similarity in expression across cultures in humans, even though they may be completely different.

One of the strongest pieces of evidence that supports this model was a study conducted by Paul Ekman, where members of a preliterate tribe in Papua New Guinea reliably recognized the facial expressions of individuals from the United States. Culturally isolated and with no exposure to US media, there was no possibility of cross-cultural transmission to the Papuan tribesmen.{{cite journal|last1=Tracy|first1=Jessica L.|last2=Robins|first2=Richard W.|title=The nonverbal expression of pride: Evidence for cross-cultural recognition |journal=Journal of Personality and Social Psychology |date=2008 |volume=94 |issue=3 |pages=516–530 |doi=10.1037/0022-3514.94.3.516 |pmid=18284295|url=http://ubc-emotionlab.ca/wp-content/uploads/2011/11/tracy-robins-jpsp-2008-pride-culture.pdf}}

The term body language is usually applied in regard to people but may also be applied to animals.{{cite book |last1=Poyatos |first1=Fernando |title=Nonverbal Communication Across Disciplines, Volume II |date=2002 |publisher=John Benjamins Publishing Company |isbn=1-55619-754-3 |page=189}}

On the other hand, the cultural advantage model predicts that individuals of the same race "process the visual characteristics more accurately and efficiently than other-race faces".{{cite journal |last1=O'Toole |first1=Alice J. |last2=Peterson |first2=Jennifer |last3=Deffenbacher |first3=Kenneth A. |title=An "other-race effect" for categorizing faces by sex |journal=Perception |date=1996 |volume=25 |issue=6 |pages=669–676 |doi=10.1068/p250669|pmid=8888300 |s2cid=7191979 }} Other factors that increase accurate interpretation include familiarity with nonverbal accents.{{cite journal |last1=Marsh |first1=A.A. |last2=Elfenbein |first2=H.A. |last3=Ambady |first3=N. |title=Nonverbal "accents": Cultural differences in facial expressions of emotion |journal=Psychological Science |date=2003 |volume=14 |issue=4 |pages=373–376 |pmid=12807413 |doi=10.1111/1467-9280.24461|s2cid=61782 }}

There are numerous studies that support both the cultural equivalence model and the cultural advantage model, but reviewing the literature indicates that there is a general consensus that seven emotions are universally recognized, regardless of cultural background: happiness, surprise, fear, anger, contempt, disgust, and sadness.{{cite journal|last1=Russell|first1=James A.|title=Is There Universal Recognition of Emotion From Facial Expression? A Review of the Cross-Cultural Studies|journal=Psychological Bulletin|date=1994|volume=115|issue=1|pages=102–141|url=https://www2.bc.edu/~russeljm/publications/psyc-bull1994.pdf|doi=10.1037/0033-2909.115.1.102|pmid=8202574|s2cid=4823006 |access-date=2014-10-13|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304104016/https://www2.bc.edu/~russeljm/publications/psyc-bull1994.pdf|archive-date=2016-03-04|url-status=dead}}

Recently, scholars have shown that the expressions of pride and shame are universal. Tracy and Robins (2008) concluded that the expression of pride includes an expanded posture of the body with the head tilted back, with a low-intensity face and a non-Duchenne smile (raising the corner of the mouth). The expression of shame includes the hiding of the face, either by turning it down or covering it with the hands.

Fundamentally, body language is seemed as an involuntary and unconscious phenomenon that adds to the process of communication.{{Cite book |last=D. Billups |first=Felice |chapter=The Qualitative Data Collection Cycle |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.4135/9781071878699.n7 |title=Qualitative Data Collection Tools: Design, Development, and Applications |date=2019 |publisher=SAGE Publications, Inc. |isbn=9781544334813 |pages=52–53 |doi=10.4135/9781071878699.n7 |s2cid=246523087 |language=en}} Despite that, there have been certain areas where the conscious harnessing of body language – both in action and comprehension – have been useful. The use of body language has also seen an increase in application and use commercially, with large volumes of books and guides published designed to teach people how to be conscious of body language, and how to use it to benefit them in certain scenarios.{{cite book |last=Fast |first=Julius |title=Body Language |date=2014 |publisher=Open Road Media |isbn=978-1497622685}}

The use of body language can be seen in a wide variety of fields. Body languages has seen applications in instructional teaching in areas such as second-language acquisition{{cite journal|author1-link=Tammy Gregersen|last1=Gregersen|first1=Tammy S.|title=Language learning beyond words: Incorporating body language into classroom activities|journal=Reflections on English Language Teaching|date=July 2007|volume=6|pages=51–64}} and also to enhance the teaching of subjects like mathematics. A related use of body language is as a substitution to verbal language to people who lack the ability to use that, be it because of deafness or aphasia. Body language has also been applied in the process of detecting deceit through micro-expressions, both in law enforcement and even in the world of poker.{{cite book|last1=Caro|first1=Mike|title=The Body Language of Poker: Mike Caro's Book of Tells|date=1994}}

The importance of body language in second-language acquisition was inspired by the fact that to successfully learn a language is to achieve discourse, strategic, and sociolinguistic competencies.{{cite journal|last1=Kellerman|first1=Susan|title=I see what you mean: The role of kinesic behaviour in listening and the implications for foreign and second language learning|journal=Applied Linguistics|date=1992|volume=13|issue=3|pages=239–258|doi=10.1093/applin/13.3.239}} Sociolinguistic competence includes understanding the body language that aids the use of a particular language. This is usually also highly culturally influenced. As such, a conscious ability to recognize and even perform this sort of body language is necessary to achieve fluency in a language beyond the discourse level.

The importance of body language to verbal language use is the need to eliminate ambiguity and redundancy in comprehension. Pennycook (1985) suggests to limit the use of non-visual materials to facilitate the teaching of a second language to improve this aspect of communication. He calls this being not just bilingual but also 'bi-kinesic'.{{cite journal|author1-link=Alastair Pennycook|last1=Pennycook|first1=Alastair|title=Actions speak louder than words: Paralanguage, communication, and education|journal=TESOL Quarterly|date=1985|volume=19|issue=2|pages=259–282|doi=10.2307/3586829|jstor=3586829}}

Body language can be a useful aid not only in teaching a second language, but also in other areas. The idea behind using it is as a nonlinguistic input.{{cite book|last1=Brandl|first1=Klaus|title=Communicative Language Teaching in Action: Putting Principles to Work|date=2007}} It can be used to guide, hint, or urge a student towards the right answer. This is usually paired off with other verbal methods of guiding the student, be it through confirmation checks or modified language use. Tai{{cite journal|last1=Tai|first1=Yuanyuan|title=The Application of Body Language in English Teaching|journal=Journal of Language Teaching and Research|date=2014|volume=5|issue=5|pages=1205–1209|doi=10.4304/jltr.5.5.1205-1209|doi-access=free}} in his 2014 paper provides a list of three main characteristic of body language and how they influence teaching. The features are intuition, communication, and suggestion.

• The intuitive feature of body language used in teaching is the exemplification of the language, especially individual words, through the use of matching body language. For example, when teaching about the word "cry", teachers can imitate a crying person. This enables a deeper impression which is able to lead to greater understanding of the particular word.
• The communicative feature is the ability of body language to create an environment and atmosphere that is able to facilitate effective learning. A holistic environment is more productive for learning and the acquisition for new knowledge.
• The suggestive feature of body language uses body language as a tool to create opportunities for the students to gain additional information about a particular concept or word through pairing it with the body language itself.

Despite the absence of evidence indicating that non-verbal lie detection works — and its rejection by the scholarly community as an effective way to detect lies — many law enforcement bodies still rely on it.{{Cite journal|last1=Vrij|first1=Aldert|last2=Hartwig|first2=Maria|last3=Granhag|first3=Pär Anders|date=2019|title=Reading Lies: Nonverbal Communication and Deception|journal=Annual Review of Psychology|volume=70|issue=1|pages=295–317|doi=10.1146/annurev-psych-010418-103135|pmid=30609913|s2cid=58562467|issn=0066-4308|url=https://researchportal.port.ac.uk/portal/en/publications/reading-lies-nonverbal-communication-and-deception(3d64cf66-725e-4cb5-ae5a-5619417b1452).html |doi-access=free}} Numerous Federal Bureau of Investigation Law Enforcement Bulletins have addressed body language as a purported tool for "evaluation truthfulness and detecting deception."{{cite journal|last1=Pinizzoto|first1=Anthony J.|last2=Davis|first2=Edward F.|last3=Miller III|first3=Charles E.|title=Dead Right|journal=FBI Law Enforcement Bulletin|date=March 2006|volume=75|issue=3|pages=1–8}}{{cite journal|last1=Matsumoto|first1=David|last2=Hyi Sung|first2=Hwang|last3=Skinner|first3=Lisa|last4=Frank|first4=Mark|title=Evaluating Truthfulness and Detecting Deception|journal=FBI Law Enforcement Bulletin|date=June 2011|volume=80|issue=6|pages=1–8}}

The body language of the members of law enforcement might influence the accuracy of eyewitness accounts.{{cite book|title=Eyewitness Evidence: A Guide for Law Enforcement|date=October 1999|page=9|publisher=U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs, National Institute of Justice|quote=Similarly, investigators' unintentional cues (e.g., body language, tone of voice) may negatively impact the reliability of eyewitness evidence. Psychology researchers have noted that such influences could be avoided if 'blind' identification procedures were employed (i.e., procedures conducted by investigators who do not know the identity of the actual suspect). However, blind procedures, which are used in science to prevent inadvertent contamination of research results, may be impractical for some jurisdictions to implement.}}

The game of poker involves the competence of reading and analyzing the body language of opponents (for example, poker tells), and moderating one's own body language (for example, poker bluff).

File:In Perfect Congruence.jpg

Exaggerated, repetitious, and inappropriate body language is often used to achieve a humorous effect in comedy productions. Comedy double acts often use methods of complementary and contrasting comedic body language.{{cite book |last1=Olsen |first1=Christopher |title=Acting Comedy |date=2016 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-138-89141-8 |pages=98–100}}

{{Main|Kinesics}}

Kinesics is the study and interpretation of nonverbal communication related to the movement of any part of the body or the body as a whole.{{cite book|last1=Danesi|first1=M|title=Encyclopedia of Language & Linguistics|chapter=Kinesics|date=2006 |pages=207–213 |doi=10.1016/B0-08-044854-2/01421-8 |isbn=978-0080448541}} It was first developed by Ray Birdwhistell, who disavowed use of the term body language, as it did not meet the linguistic definition of language.Barfield, T (1997). The dictionary of anthropology. Illinois: Blackwell Publishing.

{{blockquote|text=Birdwhistell pointed out that "human gestures differ from those of other animals in that they are polysemic, that they can be interpreted to have many different meanings depending on the communicative context in which they are produced". And, he "resisted the idea that 'body language' could be deciphered in some absolute fashion". He also indicated that "every body movement must be interpreted broadly and in conjunction with every other element in communication".}}

Research on body language (nonverbal behavior, NVB) in sport is only slowly emerging, although it is considered important and has been frequently studied in other disciplines.{{Cite journal |last=Furley |first=Philip |date=2023-12-31 |title=The nature and culture of nonverbal behavior in sports: theory, methodology, and a review of the literature |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/1750984X.2021.1894594 |journal=Taylor & Francis |volume=16 |pages=448–473 |doi=10.1080/1750984x.2021.1894594 |issn=1750-984X}} NVB plays a crucial role in sports by conveying athletes' emotions, intentions, and psychological states. Research indicates that athletes' NVBs, such as facial expressions and postures, are correlated with internal factors like emotions and contextual variables like success. Observers, including opponents and referees, can interpret these NVBs, which can influence perceptions and decisions during competition.

{{div col|colwidth=25em}}

• Autism spectrum
• Computer processing of body language
• Display rules
• Facial Action Coding System (FACS)
• Imitation
• Literal and figurative language
• Metaphor
• Mimoplastic art
• Mirror neuron
• Nonverbal learning disorder
• Smiley
• Statement analysis
• Universal language

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{{Nonverbal communication}}

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Category:Human positions

Category:Nonverbal communication

fr:Langage corporel