breast binding

File:Chest binders in various skin tones DSCF2250.jpg exhibit dedicated to stretch garments.]]

Breast binding, also known as chest binding, is the flattening and hiding of breasts with constrictive materials such as cloth strips or purpose-built undergarments. Binders may also be used as alternatives to bras or for reasons of propriety.

History

Breast binding has been used in many historical contexts. Different time periods of history have had differing viewpoints on the female form, including the widespread use of corsets throughout western European history up to the Victorian era.

File:曲阜師範大学の洙泗部の写真.jpg.]]

During the era of China's imperial dynasties, revealing the curves of a woman's breast was considered lewd and breasts were often bound with a moxiong or a dudou. The use of the garment was particularly popular during the Tang and Song dynasties.{{cite news|title=The ancient art of women's underwear |url=http://usa.chinadaily.com.cn/culture/2011-03/04/content_12118405_2.htm |work=China Daily |date=March 4, 2011 |access-date=5 November 2022}}{{cite news|title=The little red look |url=https://www.economist.com/china/2016/04/16/the-little-red-look |newspaper=The Economist |date=April 16, 2016 |access-date=5 November 2022 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20221105100525/https://www.economist.com/china/2016/04/16/the-little-red-look |archive-date=5 November 2022}} Breast binding became an exclusive aesthetic practice for women continuing until the 1930s, with more prevalence among upper-class women.{{cite journal|last1=Lei |first1=Jun |title="Natural" Curves: Breast-Binding and Changing Aesthetics of the Female Body in China of the Early Twentieth Century |journal=Modern Chinese Literature and Culture |date=Spring 2015 |volume=27 |issue=1 |pages=163–223 |issn=1520-9857}} The long-standing custom resulted from a culture that "believed large breasts were symbols of lasciviousness."{{cite thesis|last=Jiao |first=Lin |date=2017 |title=Nation, Fashion and Women's Everyday Lives: Breast-binding in China, 1910s-1970s |url=https://eprints.soas.ac.uk/24390/1/Jiao_4368.pdf |degree=PhD |publisher=SOAS University of London |doi=10.25501/SOAS.00024390}}

File:Hanbok (female and male).jpg.]]

Korean women wearing the traditional hanbok concealed the female body by binding their breasts tightly with a cloth band.{{cite book|editor1-last=Shin |editor1-first=Gi-Wook |editor2-last=Robinson |editor2-first=Michael |title=Colonial Modernity in Korea |date=1999 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=JMVgNnkZXAQC&q=421 421] |publisher=Harvard University Asia Center |location=Cambridge, Massachusetts |isbn=978-0674005945}}{{cite web|last1=Kim |first1=Julie Ju-Youn |title=Rendering the Body Present: Unwrapping the Hanbok and Villa of Veils |url=https://www.academia.edu/related-papers/10763583 |website=Academia.edu |page=13 |date=2014}}

In Japan, the traditional kimono flattens the appearance of the breasts, with breasts bound and flattened with an obi,{{cite book|editor1-last=Tewari |editor1-first=Nita |editor2-last=Alvarez |editor2-first=Alvin |title=Asian American Psychology: Current Perspectives |date=2009 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=w7K4bRyidcoC&q=obi 197] |publisher=Psychology Press |location=New York |isbn=978-1841697697}} and a datemaki belt wrapped around the torso from the chest to the waist.{{cite book|last1=Kenny |first1=Erin |last2=Nichols |first2=Elizabeth Gackstetter |title=Beauty around the World: A Cultural Encyclopedia |date=2017 |pages=46–48 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |location=Santa Barbara, California |isbn=978-1610699440}} A sarashi is used by Japanese women to flatten their breasts.{{Citation needed|date=November 2022}}

In Africa, adolescent Wodaabe girls had their breasts tightly bound to induce sagging, minimize sexual desirability, and improve their ability to breastfeed. In cultures where the breasts of pubescent girls are ironed to suppress their development, wealthier classes often choose to use an elastic belt to compress and flatten the breasts.{{cite web|title=Breast Ironing Fact Sheet |url=https://aho.org/fact-sheets/breast-ironing-fact-sheet |website=Africa Health Organisation |date=March 22, 2019 |access-date=10 November 2022}}

Until the early 20th century, many Catholic nuns bound their breasts under their habit to deflect the attention of male clergy and diminish sexual desire in men.{{cite book|editor1-last=Smith |editor1-first=Merril D. |title=Cultural Encyclopedia of the Breast |date=2014 |pages=45–46 |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield |location=Lanham, Maryland |isbn=978-0759123311}}

Breast binding was one of the punishments inflicted upon the women inmates confined in Ireland's Magdalene asylums.{{cite news|last1=Gibbons |first1=Fiachra |title=In God's Name |url=https://www.theguardian.com/culture/2003/feb/07/artsfeatures |work=The Guardian |date=6 February 2003 |access-date=4 November 2022}}

Post-WWI women office workers modified their physique with bound breasts to reduce and conceal the female form, thereby minimizing sexual curiosity from males.{{cite journal|last1=Yellis |first1=Kenneth A. |title=Prosperity's Child: Some Thoughts on the Flapper |journal=American Quarterly |date=Spring 1969 |volume=21 |issue=1 |page=54 |doi=10.2307/2710772 |jstor=2710772 |issn=0003-0678}}

In the 1920s, a flat-chested silhouette became the ideal look among women, with breasts bound against the chest wall with binders.{{cite book|last1=Farrell-Beck |first1=Jane |last2=Gau |first2=Colleen |title=Uplift: The Bra in America |date=2002 |publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press |location=Philadelphia, Pennsylvania |isbn=0812236432 |pages=41, 49}} To present a boyish form, flappers bound their breasts.

Wearing a corset was one way that the size of breasts could be reduced.

Motivation

File:Ella Wesner, Gilded Age male impersonator, photographed by Sarony.jpg. Impersonators and drag kings may bind their breasts as a characteristic of their costume.]]

There are many reasons for binding breasts:{{Cite web|last1=Haghighi |first1=Anna Smith |title=What is binding, and how can I do it safely? |url=https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/breast-binding |website=Medical News Today |date=June 29, 2022 |access-date=April 16, 2023}}

For accelerated recovery by reducing movement after an injury or surgery.
For lactation suppression.{{cite journal|last1=Swift |first1=Kathy |last2=Janke |first2=Jill |title=Breast Binding . . . Is It All That It's Wrapped Up To Be? |journal=Journal of Obstetric, Gynecologic, & Neonatal Nursing |date=May–June 2003 |volume=32 |issue=3 |pages=332–339 |issn=0884-2175 |doi=10.1177/0884217503253531 |pmid=12774875}}
For concealment of breasts or breast development.
For beauty and aesthetics.
For male impersonation, cosplay, crossplay, and other forms of costuming.
For a masculine clothed appearance, to assist with passing as male.
For transgender men, including non-binary people, it alleviates gender dysphoria by altering the appearance of the chestCountryman, Betty Ann. "Breast care in the early puerperium." Journal of Obstetric, Gynecologic, & Neonatal Nursing 2.5 (1973): 36–40 and creates gender euphoria; and as a substitute for, or prior to chest masculinization surgery.

Women who have developed larger breasts from hormone replacement therapy or breast augmentation surgery may choose to bind.

Some adolescents begin to bind their breasts as they enter puberty.{{Explain|date=January 2025|reason=Why? Vague and unsourced.}} Some people associate binding with body dissatisfaction or body dysmorphic disorder.{{cite journal |vauthors=Horowitz K, Gorfinkle K, Lewis O, Phillips KA |title=Body dysmorphic disorder in an adolescent girl |journal=J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry |volume=41 |issue=12 |pages=1503–9 |date=December 2002 |pmid=12447038 |pmc=1613829 |doi=10.1097/00004583-200212000-00023}}

Transmasculine and non-binary people

Transgender men and non-binary people may bind their breasts as an alternative to or while waiting for top surgery.{{Cite web|last1=Bashforth |first1=Emily |title=How to bind your chest safely |url=https://www.lgbtqnation.com/2022/12/bind-chest-safely/ |website=LGBTQ Nation |date=December 30, 2022 |access-date=April 16, 2023}} The appearance of a flat chest may minimize gender dysphoria{{Cite journal |last1=Julian |first1=Jamie M. |last2=Salvetti |first2=Bianca |last3=Held |first3=Jordan I. |last4=Murray |first4=Paula M. |last5=Lara-Rojas |first5=Lucas |last6=Olson-Kennedy |first6=Johanna |date=2021 |title=The Impact of Chest Binding in Transgender and Gender Diverse Youth and Young Adults |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33121901/ |journal=The Journal of Adolescent Health|volume=68 |issue=6 |pages=1129–1134 |doi=10.1016/j.jadohealth.2020.09.029 |issn=1879-1972 |pmid=33121901|s2cid=226205016 }} and cause gender euphoria.{{Cite journal |last1=Beischel |first1=Will J. |last2=Gauvin |first2=Stéphanie E. M. |last3=van Anders |first3=Sari M. |title="A little shiny gender breakthrough": Community understandings of gender euphoria |journal=International Journal of Transgender Health |date=2022 |volume=23 |issue=3 |pages=274–294 |doi=10.1080/26895269.2021.1915223 |issn=2689-5269 |pmc=9255216 |pmid=35799953}}

Many people who bind for gender-affirming purposes are unwilling to seek medical attention due to a perceived lack of knowledge from healthcare professionals and continue binding since they believe the benefits outweigh the risks. In case of health concerns, they tend to seek help from healthcare professionals they perceive as trans-friendly and who will not stigmatize their binding practice.{{Cite journal|title=Chest Binding and Care Seeking Among Transmasculine Adults: A Cross-Sectional Study|last1=Jarrett|first1=Brooke A.|last2=Corbet|first2=Alexandra L.|last3=Gardner|first3=Ivy H.|last4=Peitzmeier|first4=Sarah M.|date=14 Dec 2018|journal=Transgender Health|publisher=Mary Ann Liebert, Inc., publishers|language=en|volume=3|issue=1|pages=170–178|doi=10.1089/trgh.2018.0017|pmc=6298447|pmid=30564633}}

Gynecomastia

Cisgender men afflicted with gynecomastia may find cause to bind as a means to control the appearance of breasts, during the wait before surgery or as an alternative to surgery. Some apparel companies make compression shirts for cisgender men that provide the same result as a breast binder.{{cite web|last1=Jones |first1=Eve |title=Best chest binder |url=https://kdvr.com/reviews/br/apparel-br/best-chest-binder/ |website=Fox31 Denver |access-date=April 16, 2023 |date=June 4, 2022}}

Methods

Modern binders or binding bras are purpose-built undergarments often made of spandex or other synthetic fibre. These can be more expensive than other breast-binding options and are not widely stocked, but they are generally considered less dangerous than alternatives.{{citation needed|date=December 2023}} Other common binding materials include cloth strips or non-elastic bandages.

Elastic bandages are considered unsafe to use. Duct tape has also been used to bind breasts, but it is dangerous and should be avoided. It is safer to use a binder from a reputable company or a high impact sports bra.{{cite web|title=Trans Tape for Chest Binding: Insights on How To Use Tape |url=https://www.gendergp.com/trans-tape-how-to-use-chest-binding-alternative/ |website=GenderGP |date=June 22, 2020}}

Tops layered from tight-fitting to loose can also be used to hide breasts.{{citation needed|date=December 2023}}

Complications

Breast binding is known to create a number of health risks, including difficulty breathing, backache, skin rashes, and deformity of the ribs.

To minimise complications, some limit their binding use for no longer than eight hours. Binding for extended periods of time can lead to rashes or yeast infections under the breasts,{{cite web|url=http://transhealth.ucsf.edu/trans?page=protocol-exam|title=Transgender primary medical care: Suggested guidelines for clinicians in British Columbia|last=Feldman|first=JL|author2=Goldberg, J |year=2006|publisher=Vancouver Coastal Health|access-date=15 June 2014}}{{cite book|last=Erickson-Schroth|first=Laura|title=Trans Bodies, Trans Selves: A Resource for the Transgender Community|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EuB_AwAAQBAJ&pg=PA134|year=2014|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=9780199325351|page=134}} back or chest pain, shortness of breath, overheating, or, rarely, fractured ribs.{{cite web|last1=Tsjeng |first1=Zing |title=Inside the Landmark, Long Overdue Study on Chest Binding |url=https://www.vice.com/en/article/chest-binding-health-project-inside-landmark-overdue-transgender-study/ |website=Vice News |date=September 28, 2016 |access-date=20 March 2023}} Additionally, some unconventional binding materials, such as duct tape, body tape, binding tape or athletic bandages, are known to increase an individual's risk for negative health outcomes such as shortness of breath, musculoskeletal damage, and skin damage.{{cite web |url=https://www.prideinpractice.org/articles/chest-binding-physician-guide/ |title=Chest Binding: A Physician's Guide |website=PRIDEinPractice |date=6 April 2019 |access-date=1 October 2020}} Unsafe binding may lead to permanent deformation of the breasts,{{cite web|url=http://www.med.umich.edu/transgender/Binding%20FAQ.pdf|title=Binding FAQ|publisher=University of Michigan Health System|archive-date=6 September 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120906033102/http://www.med.umich.edu/transgender/Binding%20FAQ.pdf}} scarring, and lung constriction,{{Cite journal|last1=Dutton|first1=Lauren|last2=Koenig|first2=Karel|last3=Fennie|first3=Kristopher|date=2008-08-01|title=Gynecologic care of the female-to-male transgender man|journal=Journal of Midwifery & Women's Health|volume=53|issue=4|pages=331–337|doi=10.1016/j.jmwh.2008.02.003|issn=1542-2011|pmid=18586186|pmc=4902153}} and long-term binding may adversely affect the outcome of a future mastectomy.{{cite book|last1=Makadon|first1=Harvey J.|last2=Mayer|first2=Kenneth H.|last3=Potter|first3=Jennifer|last4=Goldhammer|first4=Hilary|title=The Fenway Guide to Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual and Transgender Health|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tFUkQG_hfMYC&pg=PT409|year=2015|publisher=ACP Press|isbn=9781934465783|page=409}}