buprenorphine

Buprenorphine is used to treat people with opioid use disorder.{{cite book | vauthors = Levounis P, Avery J | chapter = Patient Assessment | veditors = Renner Jr JA, Levounis P, LaRose AT |title=Office-based buprenorphine treatment of opioid use disorder |publisher=American Psychiatric Association Publishing |year=2018 |isbn=978-1-61537-170-9 |location=Arlington, VA |oclc=1002302926 }}{{Rp|84–7}} In the U.S., the combination formulation of buprenorphine/naloxone is generally prescribed to deter injection, since naloxone, an opioid antagonist, is believed to cause acute withdrawal if the formulation is crushed and injected.{{cite book | vauthors = Restrepo R, Levounis P | chapter = Clinical Use of Buprenorphine | veditors = Renner Jr JA, Levounis P, LaRose AT |title=Office-based buprenorphine treatment of opioid use disorder |publisher=American Psychiatric Association Publishing|year=2018|isbn=978-1-61537-170-9 |location=Arlington, VA |oclc=1002302926 }}{{Rp|99}} Taken orally, the naloxone has virtually no effect, due to the drug's extremely high first-pass metabolism and low bioavailability (2%).{{cite web|title=Naloxone Hydrochloride|url=https://www.drugs.com/monograph/naloxone-hydrochloride.html|publisher=The American Society of Health-System Pharmacists|access-date=2 January 2015|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150102115454/http://www.drugs.com/monograph/naloxone-hydrochloride.html|archive-date=2 January 2015}} However, the efficacy of naloxone in preventing misuse by injection has as of 2020 been brought into question and preparations including naloxone could even be less safe than preparations containing solely buprenorphine. Anecdotally, posters on drug-related online forums have stated that they were able to attain a high by injecting preparations of buprenorphine despite being combined with naloxone.

Before starting buprenorphine, individuals are generally advised to wait long enough after their last dose of opioid until they have some withdrawal symptoms to allow for the medication to bind the receptors, since if taken too soon, buprenorphine can displace other opioids bound to the receptors and precipitate an acute withdrawal. The dose of buprenorphine is then adjusted until symptoms improve, and individuals remain on a maintenance dose of 8–16 mg.{{Rp|99–100}}

Because withdrawal is uncomfortable and a deterrent for many patients, users have called for different means of treatment initiation.{{cite journal | vauthors = Sue KL, Cohen S, Tilley J, Yocheved A | title = A Plea From People Who Use Drugs to Clinicians: New Ways to Initiate Buprenorphine Are Urgently Needed in the Fentanyl Era | journal = Journal of Addiction Medicine | volume = 16 | issue = 4 | pages = 389–391 | date = January 2022 | pmid = 35020693 | doi = 10.1097/ADM.0000000000000952 | s2cid = 245925947 }} The Bernese method, also known as micro dosing was described in 2016, where very small doses of buprenorphine (0.2 to 0.5 mg) are given while patients are still using street opioids, and without precipitating withdrawal, with medicine levels slowly titrated upward.{{cite journal | vauthors = Hämmig R, Kemter A, Strasser J, von Bardeleben U, Gugger B, Walter M, Dürsteler KM, Vogel M | title = Use of microdoses for induction of buprenorphine treatment with overlapping full opioid agonist use: the Bernese method | journal = Substance Abuse and Rehabilitation | volume = 7 | pages = 99–105 | date = 20 July 2016 | pmid = 27499655 | pmc = 4959756 | doi = 10.2147/SAR.S109919 | doi-access = free }} This method has been used by some providers as of the 2020s.{{cite journal | vauthors = Ahmed S, Bhivandkar S, Lonergan BB, Suzuki J | title = Microinduction of Buprenorphine/Naloxone: A Review of the Literature | journal = The American Journal on Addictions | volume = 30 | issue = 4 | pages = 305–315 | date = July 2021 | pmid = 33378137 | doi = 10.1111/ajad.13135 | s2cid = 229721826 }}

Both buprenorphine and methadone are medications used for detoxification and opioid replacement therapy, and appear to have similar effectiveness based on limited data.{{cite journal | vauthors = Gowing L, Ali R, White JM, Mbewe D | title = Buprenorphine for managing opioid withdrawal | journal = The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews | volume = 2017 | issue = 2 | pages = CD002025 | date = February 2017 | pmid = 28220474 | pmc = 6464315 | doi = 10.1002/14651858.CD002025.pub5 }} Both are safe for pregnant women with opioid use disorder,{{Rp|101}} although preliminary evidence suggests that methadone is more likely to cause neonatal abstinence syndrome.{{cite journal | vauthors = Lemon LS, Caritis SN, Venkataramanan R, Platt RW, Bodnar LM | title = Methadone Versus Buprenorphine for Opioid Use Dependence and Risk of Neonatal Abstinence Syndrome | language = en-US | journal = Epidemiology | volume = 29 | issue = 2 | pages = 261–268 | date = March 2018 | pmid = 29112519 | pmc = 5792296 | doi = 10.1097/EDE.0000000000000780 | quote = Methadone is associated with increased risk of neonatal abstinence syndrome compared with buprenorphine in infants exposed in utero. This association is subject to minimal bias due to unmeasured confounding by severity of addiction. }} In the US and European Union, only designated clinics can prescribe methadone for opioid use disorder, requiring patients to travel to the clinic daily. If patients are drug-free for a period they may be permitted to receive "take-home doses," reducing their visits to as little as once a week. Alternatively, up to a month's supply of buprenorphine has been able to be prescribed by clinicians in the US or Europe who have completed basic training (8–24 hours in the US) and received a waiver/licence allowing the prescription of the medicine.{{Rp|84–5}} In France, buprenorphine prescription for opioid use disorder has been permitted without any special training or restrictions since 1995, resulting in treatment of approximately ten times more patients per year with buprenorphine than with methadone in the following decade.{{cite journal | vauthors = Auriacombe M, Fatséas M, Dubernet J, Daulouède JP, Tignol J | title = French field experience with buprenorphine | journal = The American Journal on Addictions | volume = 13 | issue = Suppl 1 | pages = S17–S28 | date = 2004 | pmid = 15204673 | doi = 10.1080/10550490490440780 }} In 2021, seeking to address record levels of opioid overdose, the United States also removed the requirement for a special waiver for prescribing physicians.{{cite web | author = Office of the Assistant Secretary for Health (OASH)|date=14 January 2021|title=HHS Expands Access to Treatment for Opioid Use Disorder |url= https://www.hhs.gov/about/news/2021/01/14/hhs-expands-access-to-treatment-for-opioid-use-disorder.html |access-date=5 January 2022|website=HHS.gov|archive-date=25 January 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220125001024/https://www.hhs.gov/about/news/2021/01/14/hhs-expands-access-to-treatment-for-opioid-use-disorder.html|url-status=live}} Whether this change will be sufficient to impact prescription is unclear, since even before the change as many as half of physicians with a waiver permitting them to prescribe buprenorphine did not do so, and one-third of non-waivered physicians reported that nothing would induce them to prescribe buprenorphine for opioid use disorder.{{cite journal | title = Removing The X-Waiver Is One Small Step Toward Increasing Treatment Of Opioid Use Disorder, But Great Leaps Are Needed | journal = Health Affairs Forefront | url = https://www.healthaffairs.org/do/10.1377/forefront.20210419.311749/full/ | access-date = 5 January 2022 | vauthors = Stringfellow EJ, Humphreys K, Jalali MS | year = 2021 | doi = 10.1377/forefront.20210419.311749 | archive-date = 14 October 2022 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20221014051149/https://www.healthaffairs.org/do/10.1377/forefront.20210419.311749/full/ | url-status = live }}

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A transdermal patch is available for the treatment of chronic pain. These patches are not indicated for use in acute pain, pain that is expected to last only for a short period, or pain after surgery, nor are they recommended for opioid addiction.{{cite web|title=Butrans Medication Guide|url=http://app.purduepharma.com/xmlpublishing/pi.aspx?id=b&medguide=1|website=Butrans Medication Guide|publisher=Purdue Pharma L.P.|access-date=7 July 2014|archive-date=14 July 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714150342/http://app.purduepharma.com/xmlpublishing/pi.aspx?id=b&medguide=1|url-status=live}}

For equianalgesic dosing, when used sublingually, the potency of buprenorphine is about 40 to 70 times that of morphine."{{cite book | chapter-url = http://www.dea.gov/pubs/abuse/4-narc.htm | chapter = Ch. 4 Narcotics: Narcotics Treatment Drugs: Buprenorphine | title = Drugs of Abuse | author = Drug Enforcement Administration | publisher = U.S. Department of Justice | date = 2005 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20061102144614/http://www.dea.gov/pubs/abuse/4-narc.htm | archive-date = 2 November 2006 }}{{cite web|url=https://ww2.health.wa.gov.au/~/media/Files/Corporate/general%20documents/Health%20Networks/WA%20Cancer%20and%20Palliative%20Care/How-to-use-the-Opioid-Conversion-Guide.pdf|title=Opioid Conversion Guide|date=February 2016|website=Department of Health, Government of Western Australia|access-date=10 February 2020|archive-date=18 April 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200418072615/https://ww2.health.wa.gov.au/~/media/Files/Corporate/general%20documents/Health%20Networks/WA%20Cancer%20and%20Palliative%20Care/How-to-use-the-Opioid-Conversion-Guide.pdf|url-status=live}} When used as a transdermal patch, the potency of buprenorphine may be 100 to 115 times that of morphine.{{cite journal | vauthors = Cote J, Montgomery L | title = Sublingual buprenorphine as an analgesic in chronic pain: a systematic review | journal = Pain Medicine | volume = 15 | issue = 7 | pages = 1171–1178 | date = July 2014 | pmid = 24995716 | doi = 10.1111/pme.12386 | doi-access = free }}{{cite journal | vauthors = Khanna IK, Pillarisetti S | title = Buprenorphine - an attractive opioid with underutilized potential in treatment of chronic pain | journal = Journal of Pain Research | volume = 8 | pages = 859–870 | date = 2015 | pmid = 26672499 | pmc = 4675640 | doi = 10.2147/JPR.S85951 | doi-access = free }}

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Common adverse drug reactions associated with the use of buprenorphine, similar to those of other opioids, include nausea and vomiting, drowsiness, dizziness, headache, memory loss, cognitive and neural inhibition, perspiration, itchiness, dry mouth, shrinking of the pupils of the eyes (miosis), orthostatic hypotension, male ejaculatory difficulty, decreased libido, and urinary retention. Constipation and central nervous system (CNS) effects are seen less frequently than with morphine.Budd K, Raffa RB. (eds.) Buprenorphine – The unique opioid analgesic. Thieme, 200, {{ISBN|3-13-134211-0}} Central sleep apnea has also been reported as a side effect of long-term buprenorphine use.{{cite journal | vauthors = Tchikrizov V, Richert AC, Bhardwaj SB | title = Case of buprenorphine-associated central sleep apnea resolving with dose reduction | journal = Journal of Opioid Management | volume = 18 | issue = 4 | pages = 391–394 | date = 1 July 2022 | pmid = 36052936 | doi = 10.5055/jom.2022.0732 | s2cid = 251959885 }}{{cite journal | vauthors = DeVido J, Connery H, Hill KP | title = Sleep-disordered breathing in patients with opioid use disorders in long-term maintenance on buprenorphine-naloxone: A case series | journal = Journal of Opioid Management | volume = 11 | issue = 4 | pages = 363–366 | date = 1 July 2015 | pmid = 26312963 | doi = 10.5055/jom.2015.0285 | pmc = 4754775 }}

The most severe side effect associated with buprenorphine is respiratory depression (insufficient breathing). It occurs more often in those who are also taking benzodiazepines or alcohol, or have underlying lung disease. The usual reversal agents for opioids, such as naloxone, may be only partially effective, and additional efforts to support breathing may be required. Respiratory depression may be less than with other opioids, particularly with chronic use.{{cite web|title=Buprenorphine|url=https://www.samhsa.gov/medication-assisted-treatment/treatment/buprenorphine|website=www.samhsa.gov|access-date=3 December 2017|date=31 May 2016|archive-date=9 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210709105557/https://www.samhsa.gov/medication-assisted-treatment/medications-counseling-related-conditions/buprenorphine|url-status=live}} In the setting of acute pain management, though, buprenorphine appears to cause the same rate of respiratory depression as other opioids such as morphine.{{cite journal | vauthors = White LD, Hodge A, Vlok R, Hurtado G, Eastern K, Melhuish TM | title = Efficacy and adverse effects of buprenorphine in acute pain management: systematic review and meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials | journal = British Journal of Anaesthesia | volume = 120 | issue = 4 | pages = 668–678 | date = April 2018 | pmid = 29576108 | doi = 10.1016/j.bja.2017.11.086 | doi-access = free }} Central sleep apnea is possible with long-term use, possibly resolving with dose reduction.

Buprenorphine treatment carries the risk of causing psychological or physiological (physical) dependencies. It has a slow onset of activity, with a long duration of action, and a long half-life of 24 to 60 hours. Once a patient has stabilised on the (buprenorphine) medication and programme, three options remain - continual use (buprenorphine-only medication), switching to a buprenorphine/naloxone combination, or a medically supervised withdrawal.

Achieving acute opioid analgesia is difficult in persons using buprenorphine for pain management.{{cite journal | vauthors = Alford DP, Compton P, Samet JH | title = Acute pain management for patients receiving maintenance methadone or buprenorphine therapy | journal = Annals of Internal Medicine | volume = 144 | issue = 2 | pages = 127–134 | date = January 2006 | pmid = 16418412 | pmc = 1892816 | doi = 10.7326/0003-4819-144-2-200601170-00010 }} However, a systematic review found no clear benefit to bridging or stopping buprenorphine when used in opioid substitution therapy to facilitate perioperative pain management, but failure to restart it was found to pose concerns for relapse. Therefore, it is recommended that buprenorphine opioid substitution therapy is continued in the perioperative period when possible. In addition, preoperative pain management in patients taking buprenorphine should use an interdisciplinary approach with multimodal analgesia.Disha Mehta, Vinod Thomas, Jacinta Johnson, Brooke Scott, Sandra Cortina, Landon Berger. 2020 Continuation of Buprenorphine to Facilitate Postoperative Pain Management for Patients on Buprenorphine Opioid Agonist Therapy. 23;E163-E174. https://www.painphysicianjournal.com/current/pdf?article=NzAzMQ%3D%3D&journal=125 {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230518071739/https://www.painphysicianjournal.com/current/pdf?article=NzAzMQ%3D%3D&journal=125 |date=18 May 2023 }}

Buprenorphine has been reported to possess these following pharmacological activities:

• μ-Opioid receptor (MOR): Very high affinity partial agonist:{{cite journal | vauthors = Gudin J, Fudin J | title = A Narrative Pharmacological Review of Buprenorphine: A Unique Opioid for the Treatment of Chronic Pain | journal = Pain and Therapy | volume = 9 | issue = 1 | pages = 41–54 | date = June 2020 | pmid = 31994020 | pmc = 7203271 | doi = 10.1007/s40122-019-00143-6 }} at low doses, the MOR-mediated effects of buprenorphine are comparable to those of other narcotics, but these effects reach a "ceiling" as the receptor population is saturated. This behavior is responsible for several unique properties: buprenorphine greatly reduces the effect of most other MOR agonists, can cause precipitated withdrawal when used in actively opioid dependent persons, and has a lower incidence of respiratory depression and fatal overdose relative to full MOR agonists.{{cite journal | vauthors = Khanna IK, Pillarisetti S | title = Buprenorphine - an attractive opioid with underutilized potential in treatment of chronic pain | journal = Journal of Pain Research | volume = 8 | pages = 859–870 | date = 2015 | pmid = 26672499 | pmc = 4675640 | doi = 10.2147/JPR.S85951 | doi-access = free }}
• κ-Opioid receptor (KOR): High affinity antagonist/weak partial agonist —this activity is hypothesized to underlie some of the effects of buprenorphine on mood disorders and addiction.{{cite journal | vauthors = Madison CA, Eitan S | title = Buprenorphine: prospective novel therapy for depression and PTSD | journal = Psychological Medicine | volume = 50 | issue = 6 | pages = 881–893 | date = April 2020 | pmid = 32204739 | doi = 10.1017/S0033291720000525 | s2cid = 214630021 }}{{cite journal | vauthors = Stefanowski B, Antosik-Wójcińska A, Święcicki Ł | title = The use of buprenorphine in the treatment of drug-resistant depression - an overview of the studies | journal = Psychiatria Polska | volume = 54 | issue = 2 | pages = 199–207 | date = April 2020 | pmid = 32772054 | doi = 10.12740/PP/102658 | doi-access = free }}{{cite journal | vauthors = Carlezon WA, Béguin C, Knoll AT, Cohen BM | title = Kappa-opioid ligands in the study and treatment of mood disorders | journal = Pharmacology & Therapeutics | volume = 123 | issue = 3 | pages = 334–343 | date = September 2009 | pmid = 19497337 | pmc = 2740476 | doi = 10.1016/j.pharmthera.2009.05.008 }}
• δ-Opioid receptor (DOR): High affinity antagonist{{cite book|vauthors=Benzon H, Raja S, Fishman S, Liu SS, Cohen SP|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=w3g4DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA382|title=Essentials of Pain Medicine E-Book|date=2017|publisher=Elsevier Health Sciences|isbn=9780323445412|page=382|access-date=29 May 2020|archive-date=14 January 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230114153757/https://books.google.com/books?id=w3g4DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA382|url-status=live}}
• Nociceptin receptor (NOP, ORL-1): Weak affinity, very weak partial agonist

In simplified terms, buprenorphine can essentially be thought of as a nonselective, mixed agonist–antagonist opioid receptor modulator,{{cite journal | vauthors = Jacob JJ, Michaud GM, Tremblay EC | title = Mixed agonist-antagonist opiates and physical dependence | journal = British Journal of Clinical Pharmacology | volume = 7 | issue = Suppl 3 | pages = 291S–296S | year = 1979 | pmid = 572694 | pmc = 1429306 | doi = 10.1111/j.1365-2125.1979.tb04703.x }} acting as an unusually high affinity, weak partial agonist of the MOR, a high affinity antagonist of the KOR and DOR, and a relatively low affinity, very weak partial agonist of the ORL-1/NOP.{{cite journal | vauthors = Kress HG | title = Clinical update on the pharmacology, efficacy and safety of transdermal buprenorphine | journal = European Journal of Pain | volume = 13 | issue = 3 | pages = 219–230 | date = March 2009 | pmid = 18567516 | doi = 10.1016/j.ejpain.2008.04.011 | s2cid = 8243410 }}{{cite journal | vauthors = Robinson SE | title = Buprenorphine: an analgesic with an expanding role in the treatment of opioid addiction | journal = CNS Drug Reviews | volume = 8 | issue = 4 | pages = 377–390 | year = 2002 | pmid = 12481193 | pmc = 6741692 | doi = 10.1111/j.1527-3458.2002.tb00235.x }}{{cite book | vauthors = Ruiz P, Strain EC | title = Lowinson and Ruiz's Substance Abuse: A Comprehensive Textbook | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=w4ZUJAdleTsC&pg=PA439 | year = 2011 | publisher = Lippincott Williams & Wilkins | isbn = 978-1-60547-277-5 | page = 439 | access-date = 14 March 2016 | archive-date = 14 January 2023 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20230114153759/https://books.google.com/books?id=w4ZUJAdleTsC&pg=PA439 | url-status = live }}{{cite book | vauthors = Bidlack JM | title = Mixed κ/μ partial opioid agonists as potential treatments for cocaine dependence | chapter = Mixed Kappa/Mu Partial Opioid Agonists as Potential Treatments for Cocaine Dependence | series = Advances in Pharmacology | volume = 69 | pages = 387–418 | date = 2014 | pmid = 24484983 | doi = 10.1016/B978-0-12-420118-7.00010-X | isbn = 9780124201187 }}{{cite journal | vauthors = Ehrich E, Turncliff R, Du Y, Leigh-Pemberton R, Fernandez E, Jones R, Fava M | title = Evaluation of opioid modulation in major depressive disorder | journal = Neuropsychopharmacology | volume = 40 | issue = 6 | pages = 1448–1455 | date = May 2015 | pmid = 25518754 | pmc = 4397403 | doi = 10.1038/npp.2014.330 }}

Although buprenorphine is a partial agonist of the MOR, human studies have found that it acts like a full agonist with respect to analgesia in opioid-intolerant individuals.{{cite journal | vauthors = Coller JK, Christrup LL, Somogyi AA | title = Role of active metabolites in the use of opioids | journal = European Journal of Clinical Pharmacology | volume = 65 | issue = 2 | pages = 121–139 | date = February 2009 | pmid = 18958460 | doi = 10.1007/s00228-008-0570-y | s2cid = 9977741 }} Conversely, buprenorphine behaves like a partial agonist of the MOR with respect to respiratory depression.

Buprenorphine is also known to bind to with high affinity and antagonize the putative ε-opioid receptor.{{cite journal | vauthors = Mizoguchi H, Wu HE, Narita M, Hall FS, Sora I, Uhl GR, Nagase H, Tseng LF | title = Antagonistic property of buprenorphine for putative epsilon-opioid receptor-mediated G-protein activation by beta-endorphin in pons/medulla of the mu-opioid receptor knockout mouse | journal = Neuroscience | volume = 115 | issue = 3 | pages = 715–721 | year = 2002 | pmid = 12435410 | doi = 10.1016/s0306-4522(02)00486-4 | s2cid = 54316989 }}{{cite journal | vauthors = Mizoguchi H, Spaulding A, Leitermann R, Wu HE, Nagase H, Tseng LF | title = Buprenorphine blocks epsilon- and micro-opioid receptor-mediated antinociception in the mouse | journal = The Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics | volume = 306 | issue = 1 | pages = 394–400 | date = July 2003 | pmid = 12721333 | doi = 10.1124/jpet.103.048835 | s2cid = 44036890 }}

Full analgesic efficacy of buprenorphine requires both exon 11-{{cite journal | vauthors = Xu J, Xu M, Hurd YL, Pasternak GW, Pan YX | title = Isolation and characterization of new exon 11-associated N-terminal splice variants of the human mu opioid receptor gene | journal = Journal of Neurochemistry | volume = 108 | issue = 4 | pages = 962–972 | date = February 2009 | pmid = 19077058 | pmc = 2727151 | doi = 10.1111/j.1471-4159.2008.05833.x }} and exon 1-associated μ-opioid receptor splice variants.Grinnell S et al. (2014): Buprenorphine analgesia requires exon 11-associated mu opioid receptor splice variants. The FASEB Journal

The active metabolites of buprenorphine are not thought to be clinically important in its CNS effects.

In positron emission tomography (PET) imaging studies, buprenorphine was found to decrease whole-brain MOR availability due to receptor occupancy by 41% (i.e., 59% availability) at 2 mg, 80% (i.e., 20% availability) at 16 mg, and 84% (i.e., 16% availability) at 32 mg.{{cite book | veditors = Miller PM | title = Biological Research on Addiction | series = Comprehensive Addictive Behaviors and Disorders | volume = 2 | vauthors = Colasanti A, Lingford-Hughes A, Nutt D | chapter = Opioids Neuroimaging | date = 2013 | pages = 675–687 | publisher = Elsevier | doi = 10.1016/B978-0-12-398335-0.00066-2 | isbn = 9780123983350 | url = }}{{cite journal | vauthors = Zubieta J, Greenwald MK, Lombardi U, Woods JH, Kilbourn MR, Jewett DM, Koeppe RA, Schuster CR, Johanson CE | title = Buprenorphine-induced changes in mu-opioid receptor availability in male heroin-dependent volunteers: a preliminary study | journal = Neuropsychopharmacology | volume = 23 | issue = 3 | pages = 326–334 | date = September 2000 | pmid = 10942856 | doi = 10.1016/S0893-133X(00)00110-X | s2cid = 27350905 | doi-access = free }}{{cite journal | vauthors = Greenwald MK, Johanson CE, Moody DE, Woods JH, Kilbourn MR, Koeppe RA, Schuster CR, Zubieta JK | title = Effects of buprenorphine maintenance dose on mu-opioid receptor availability, plasma concentrations, and antagonist blockade in heroin-dependent volunteers | journal = Neuropsychopharmacology | volume = 28 | issue = 11 | pages = 2000–2009 | date = November 2003 | pmid = 12902992 | doi = 10.1038/sj.npp.1300251 | s2cid = 20773085 | doi-access = free }}{{cite journal | vauthors = Greenwald M, Johanson CE, Bueller J, Chang Y, Moody DE, Kilbourn M, Koeppe R, Zubieta JK | title = Buprenorphine duration of action: mu-opioid receptor availability and pharmacokinetic and behavioral indices | journal = Biological Psychiatry | volume = 61 | issue = 1 | pages = 101–110 | date = January 2007 | pmid = 16950210 | doi = 10.1016/j.biopsych.2006.04.043 | s2cid = 46105421 }}

Unlike some other opioids and opioid antagonists, buprenorphine binds only weakly to and possesses little if any activity at the sigma receptor.{{cite book| vauthors = Doweiko HE |title=Concepts of Chemical Dependency|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IuAbCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA149|date=14 March 2014|publisher=Cengage Learning|isbn=978-1-285-45717-8|pages=149–}}{{cite book|title=USP DI.|year = 1997|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=I-SwfGseCqoC|publisher=United States Pharmacopeial Convention|isbn = 9780913595947}}

Buprenorphine also blocks voltage-gated sodium channels via the local anesthetic binding site, and this underlies its potent local anesthetic properties.

Similarly to various other opioids, buprenorphine has also been found to act as an agonist of the toll-like receptor 4, albeit with very low affinity.

Buprenorphine is metabolized by the liver, via CYP3A4 (also CYP2C8 seems to be involved) isozymes of the cytochrome P450 enzyme system, into norbuprenorphine (by N-dealkylation). The glucuronidation of buprenorphine is primarily carried out by UGT1A1 and UGT2B7, and that of norbuprenorphine by UGT1A1 and UGT1A3. These glucuronides are then eliminated mainly through excretion into bile. The elimination half-life of buprenorphine is 20 to 73 hours (mean 37 hours). Due to the mainly hepatic elimination, no risk of accumulation exists in people with renal impairment.{{cite journal | vauthors = Moody DE, Fang WB, Lin SN, Weyant DM, Strom SC, Omiecinski CJ | title = Effect of rifampin and nelfinavir on the metabolism of methadone and buprenorphine in primary cultures of human hepatocytes | journal = Drug Metabolism and Disposition | volume = 37 | issue = 12 | pages = 2323–2329 | date = December 2009 | pmid = 19773542 | pmc = 2784702 | doi = 10.1124/dmd.109.028605 }}

One of the major active metabolites of buprenorphine is norbuprenorphine, which, in contrast to buprenorphine itself, is a full agonist of the MOR, DOR, and ORL-1, and a partial agonist at the KOR.{{cite journal | vauthors = Yassen A, Kan J, Olofsen E, Suidgeest E, Dahan A, Danhof M | title = Pharmacokinetic-pharmacodynamic modeling of the respiratory depressant effect of norbuprenorphine in rats | journal = The Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics | volume = 321 | issue = 2 | pages = 598–607 | date = May 2007 | pmid = 17283225 | doi = 10.1124/jpet.106.115972 | s2cid = 11921738 }}{{cite journal | vauthors = Huang P, Kehner GB, Cowan A, Liu-Chen LY | title = Comparison of pharmacological activities of buprenorphine and norbuprenorphine: norbuprenorphine is a potent opioid agonist | journal = The Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics | volume = 297 | issue = 2 | pages = 688–695 | date = May 2001 | doi = 10.1016/S0022-3565(24)29586-0 | pmid = 11303059 }} However, relative to buprenorphine, norbuprenorphine has extremely little antinociceptive potency (1/50th that of buprenorphine), but markedly depresses respiration (10-fold more than buprenorphine).{{cite journal | vauthors = Brown SM, Campbell SD, Crafford A, Regina KJ, Holtzman MJ, Kharasch ED | title = P-glycoprotein is a major determinant of norbuprenorphine brain exposure and antinociception | journal = The Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics | volume = 343 | issue = 1 | pages = 53–61 | date = October 2012 | pmid = 22739506 | pmc = 3464040 | doi = 10.1124/jpet.112.193433 }} This may be explained by very poor brain penetration of norbuprenorphine due to a high affinity of the compound for P-glycoprotein. In contrast to norbuprenorphine, buprenorphine and its glucuronide metabolites are negligibly transported by P-glycoprotein.

The glucuronides of buprenorphine and norbuprenorphine are also biologically active, and represent major active metabolites of buprenorphine.{{cite journal | vauthors = Brown SM, Holtzman M, Kim T, Kharasch ED | title = Buprenorphine metabolites, buprenorphine-3-glucuronide and norbuprenorphine-3-glucuronide, are biologically active | journal = Anesthesiology | volume = 115 | issue = 6 | pages = 1251–1260 | date = December 2011 | pmid = 22037640 | pmc = 3560935 | doi = 10.1097/ALN.0b013e318238fea0 }} Buprenorphine-3-glucuronide has affinity for the MOR (K_i = 4.9 pM), DOR (K_i = 270 nM) and ORL-1 (K_i = 36 μM), and no affinity for the KOR. It has a small antinociceptive effect and no effect on respiration. Norbuprenorphine-3-glucuronide has no affinity for the MOR or DOR, but does bind to the KOR (K_i = 300 nM) and ORL-1 (K_i = 18 μM). It has a sedative effect but no effect on respiration.

Buprenorphine is a semisynthetic derivative of thebaine,{{cite journal | vauthors = Heel RC, Brogden RN, Speight TM, Avery GS | title = Buprenorphine: a review of its pharmacological properties and therapeutic efficacy | journal = Drugs | volume = 17 | issue = 2 | pages = 81–110 | date = February 1979 | pmid = 378645 | doi = 10.2165/00003495-197917020-00001 | s2cid = 19577410 }} and is fairly soluble in water, as its hydrochloride salt. It degrades in the presence of light.

Buprenorphine and norbuprenorphine may be quantified in blood or urine to monitor use or non-medical recreational use, confirm a diagnosis of poisoning, or assist in a medicolegal investigation. A significant overlap of drug concentrations exists in body fluids within the possible spectrum of physiological reactions ranging from asymptomatic to comatose. Therefore, knowing both the route of administration of the drug and the level of tolerance to opioids of the individual is critical when results are interpreted.{{cite book | vauthors = Baselt R | date = 2008 | title = Disposition of Toxic Drugs and Chemicals in Man | edition = 8th | publisher = Biomedical Publications | location = Foster City, CA | pages = 190–192 | isbn = 978-0962652370}}

In 1969, researchers at Reckitt and Colman (now Reckitt Benckiser) had spent 10 years attempting to synthesize an opioid compound "with structures substantially more complex than morphine [that] could retain the desirable actions whilst shedding the undesirable side effects". Physical dependence and withdrawal from buprenorphine itself remain important issues since buprenorphine is a long-acting opioid.{{cite web|title=IMPORTANT SAFETY INFORMATION|url=http://www.suboxone.com/medical-treatment/side-effects-adverse-events|access-date=25 June 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190318223620/https://www.suboxone.com/medical-treatment/side-effects-adverse-events|archive-date=18 March 2019|url-status=dead}} Reckitt found success when researchers synthesized RX6029 which had shown success in reducing dependence in test animals. RX6029 was named buprenorphine and began trials on humans in 1971.{{cite journal | vauthors = Campbell ND, Lovell AM | title = The history of the development of buprenorphine as an addiction therapeutic | journal = Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences | volume = 1248 | issue = 1 | pages = 124–139 | date = February 2012 | pmid = 22256949 | doi = 10.1111/j.1749-6632.2011.06352.x | s2cid = 28395410 | bibcode = 2012NYASA1248..124C }}{{cite book |url=http://rzbl04.biblio.etc.tu-bs.de:8080/docportal/servlets/MCRFileNodeServlet/DocPortal_derivate_00001868/NIDA179.pdf |title=Problems of Drug Dependence, 1998: Proceedings of the 66th Annual Scientific Meeting, The College on Problems of Drug Dependence, Inc. |editor=Louis S. Harris |publisher=NIDA Research Monograph 179 |year=1998 |access-date=5 August 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161203055853/http://rzbl04.biblio.etc.tu-bs.de:8080/docportal/servlets/MCRFileNodeServlet/DocPortal_derivate_00001868/NIDA179.pdf |archive-date=3 December 2016 |url-status=dead }} By 1978, buprenorphine was first launched in the UK as an injection to treat severe pain, with a sublingual formulation released in 1982.

In the United States, buprenorphine and buprenorphine with naloxone were approved for opioid use disorder by the Food and Drug Administration in October 2002.{{cite letter | vauthors = McCormick CG | url = http://www.accessdata.fda.gov/drugsatfda_docs/appletter/2002/20732,20733ltr.pdf | recipient = Reckitt Benckiser | subject = Subutex and Suboxone Approval Letter]. | publisher = U.S. Food and Drug Administration | date = 8 October 2002 }} The DEA rescheduled buprenorphine from a schedule V drug to a schedule III drug just before approval.{{Federal Register|67|62354}}, 7 October 2002 The ACSCN for buprenorphine is 9064, and being a schedule III substance, it does not have an annual manufacturing quota imposed by the DEA.{{cite web | url = http://www.deadiversion.usdoj.gov/quotas/conv_factor/index.html | title = Quotas – Conversion Factors for Controlled Substances | work = Deadiversion.usdoj.gov | access-date = 7 November 2016 | archive-date = 2 March 2016 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160302162948/http://deadiversion.usdoj.gov/quotas/conv_factor/index.html | url-status = dead }} The salt in use is the hydrochloride, which has a free-base conversion ratio of 0.928.

In the years before buprenorphine/naloxone was approved, Reckitt Benckiser had lobbied Congress to help craft the Drug Addiction Treatment Act of 2000, which gave authority to the Secretary of Health and Human Services to grant a waiver to physicians with certain training to prescribe and administer schedule III, IV, or V narcotic drugs for the treatment of addiction or detoxification. Before this law was passed, such treatment was permitted only in clinics designed specifically for drug addiction.{{cite web | url = http://buprenorphine.samhsa.gov/titlexxxv.html | title = Drug Addiction Treatment Act of 2000 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130304203025/http://buprenorphine.samhsa.gov/titlexxxv.html | archive-date=4 March 2013 | work = SAMHSA, U.S. Department of Health & Human Services }}

The waiver, which can be granted after the completion of an eight-hour course, was required for outpatient treatment of opioid addiction with buprenorphine from 2000 to 2021. Initially, the number of people each approved physician could treat was limited to 10. This was eventually modified to allow approved physicians to treat up to 100 people with buprenorphine for opioid addiction in an outpatient setting.{{cite web | url = http://naabt.org/30_patient_limit.cfm/ | title = The National Alliance of Advocates for Buprenorphine Treatment | work = naabt.org | access-date = 19 May 2013 | archive-date = 12 November 2020 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20201112022606/http://www.naabt.org/30_patient_limit.cfm | url-status = live }} This limit was increased by the Obama administration, raising the number of patients to which doctors can prescribe to 275.{{cite web | url = http://www.businessinsider.com/obama-buprenorphine-suboxone-policy-2016-7 | title = Obama administration's change on buprenorphine policy | work = Business Insider | date = 6 July 2016 | access-date = 7 November 2016 | archive-date = 18 March 2020 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20200318181953/https://www.businessinsider.com/obama-buprenorphine-suboxone-policy-2016-7 | url-status = live }} On 14 January 2021, the US Department of Health and Human Services announced that the waiver would no longer be required to prescribe buprenorphine to treat up to 30 people concurrently.{{cite press release | url = https://www.hhs.gov/about/news/2021/01/14/hhs-expands-access-to-treatment-for-opioid-use-disorder.html | title = HHS Expands Access to Treatment for Opioid Use Disorder | work = US Deptartment of Health and Human Services | date = 14 January 2021 | access-date = 14 January 2021 | archive-date = 14 January 2021 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210114212923/https://www.hhs.gov/about/news/2021/01/14/hhs-expands-access-to-treatment-for-opioid-use-disorder.html | url-status = dead }}

New Jersey authorized paramedics to give buprenorphine to people at the scene after they have recovered from an overdose.{{cite web|url=https://www.statnews.com/2019/06/26/new-jersey-paramedics-buprenorphine/|title=In national first, N.J. program will let paramedics administer buprenorphine|date=26 June 2019|website=STAT|access-date=21 November 2019|archive-date=3 October 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191003145623/https://www.statnews.com/2019/06/26/new-jersey-paramedics-buprenorphine/|url-status=live}}

In the European Union, Subutex and Suboxone, buprenorphine's high-dose sublingual tablet preparations, were approved for opioid use disorder treatment in September 2006.{{cite web | url = http://www.ema.europa.eu/ema/index.jsp?curl=pages/medicines/human/medicines/000697/human_med_001067.jsp&mid=WC0b01ac058001d124 | title = Suboxone EU Approval | work = Ema.europa.eu | access-date = 7 November 2016 | archive-date = 24 December 2016 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20161224231647/http://www.ema.europa.eu/ema/index.jsp?curl=pages%2Fmedicines%2Fhuman%2Fmedicines%2F000697%2Fhuman_med_001067.jsp&mid=WC0b01ac058001d124 | url-status = live }} In the Netherlands, buprenorphine is a list II drug of the Opium Law, though special rules and guidelines apply to its prescription and dispensation. In France, buprenorphine prescription by general practitioners and dispensed by pharmacies has been permitted since the mid-1990s as a response to HIV and overdose risk. Deaths caused by heroin overdose were reduced by four-fifths between 1994 and 2002, and the incidence of AIDS among people who inject drugs in France fell from 25% in the mid-1990s to 6% in 2010.{{cite journal | vauthors = Poloméni P, Schwan R | title = Management of opioid addiction with buprenorphine: French history and current management | journal = International Journal of General Medicine | volume = 7 | pages = 143–148 | date = 3 March 2014 | pmid = 24623988 | pmc = 3949694 | doi = 10.2147/IJGM.S53170 | doi-access = free }}

In the US, the list price for a long-acting injectable form is five to 20 times as much as a daily pill.{{Cite news | vauthors = Hoffman J |date=9 September 2024 |title=How a Maine County Jail Helped Prisoners Blunt Opioid Cravings |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2024/09/09/health/buprenorphine-shots-prisons.html |work=The New York Times |quote=But for all its potential, Sublocade, approved in 2017, is not widely used in treatment settings outside of prisons either. The chief barrier is cost. A monthly injection of Sublocade has a list price of about $2,000. A month’s supply of the pills lists from about $90 to $360, depending on the dose.}} This has reduced the number of people who are able to get a single monthly dose, instead of daily pills. Some jails consider the more expensive form a positive tradeoff: a single monthly injection may be simpler and easier for the staff to manage than daily trips to the dispensary to have a nurse provide a pill and make sure that it has been swallowed.

Buprenorphine is available under the brand names Cizdol, Brixadi (approved in the US by FDA for addiction treatment in 2023), Suboxone (with naloxone), Subutex (typically used for opioid use disorder), Zubsolv, Bunavail, Buvidal (approved in the UK, Europe and Australia for addiction treatment in 2018), Sublocade (approved in the US in 2018),{{cite press release|url=https://www.fda.gov/news-events/press-announcements/fda-approves-first-once-monthly-buprenorphine-injection-medication-assisted-treatment-option-opioid |title=FDA approves first once-monthly buprenorphine injection, a medication-assisted treatment option for opioid use disorder|website=U.S. Food and Drug Administration|date=30 November 2017|access-date=5 December 2017|archive-date=3 December 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171203063547/https://www.fda.gov/NewsEvents/Newsroom/PressAnnouncements/ucm587312.htm|url-status=live}}{{cite news|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-indivior-opioids/indivior-drug-to-fight-opioid-addiction-approved-by-u-s-fda-idUSKBN1DV47M|title=Indivior drug to fight opioid addiction approved by U.S. FDA|date=2017|work=Reuters|access-date=5 December 2017|archive-date=5 December 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171205093202/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-indivior-opioids/indivior-drug-to-fight-opioid-addiction-approved-by-u-s-fda-idUSKBN1DV47M|url-status=live}}{{cite web|url=https://www.empr.com/home/news/sublocade-now-available-for-moderate-to-severe-opioid-use-disorder/|title=Sublocade Now Available for Moderate-to-Severe Opioid Use Disorder|date=1 March 2018|website=MPR|access-date=23 September 2019|archive-date=23 September 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190923021822/https://www.empr.com/home/news/sublocade-now-available-for-moderate-to-severe-opioid-use-disorder/|url-status=live}} Probuphine, Temgesic (sublingual tablets for moderate to severe pain), Buprenex (solutions for injection often used for acute pain in primary-care settings), Norspan, and Butrans (transdermal preparations used for chronic pain).{{cite web|title=Buprenorphine|work=Martindale: The Complete Drug Reference|publisher=Pharmaceutical Press|location=London, UK|date=14 January 2014|access-date=6 April 2014|url=http://www.medicinescomplete.com/mc/martindale/current/ms-19995-d.htm|archive-date=28 August 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210828013027/https://about.medicinescomplete.com/wp-content/themes/mc-marketing/assets/images/favicons-tiles/favicon.ico|url-status=live}} In Poland buprenorphine is available under the trade names Bunondol (for pain treatment, when morphine is too little; amounts of 0.2mg and 0.4mg) and Bunorfin (for addicts substitution in amount of 2 and 8mg).

There is some evidence that a buprenorphine microdosing regime, started before opioid withdrawal symptoms have started, can be effective in helping people transition away from opioid dependence.{{cite journal |vauthors=Ahmed S, Bhivandkar S, Lonergan BB, Suzuki J |title=Microinduction of Buprenorphine/Naloxone: A Review of the Literature |journal=Am J Addict |volume=30 |issue=4 |pages=305–315 |date=July 2021 |pmid=33378137 |doi=10.1111/ajad.13135 |s2cid=229721826 |type=Review}}

Some evidence supports the use of buprenorphine for depression.{{cite journal | vauthors = Stanciu CN, Glass OM, Penders TM | title = Use of Buprenorphine in treatment of refractory depression-A review of current literature | journal = Asian Journal of Psychiatry | volume = 26 | pages = 94–98 | date = April 2017 | pmid = 28483102 | doi = 10.1016/j.ajp.2017.01.015 }} Buprenorphine/samidorphan, a combination product of buprenorphine and samidorphan (a preferential μ-opioid receptor antagonist), appears useful for treatment-resistant depression.{{cite journal | vauthors = Ragguett RM, Rong C, Rosenblat JD, Ho RC, McIntyre RS | title = Pharmacodynamic and pharmacokinetic evaluation of buprenorphine + samidorphan for the treatment of major depressive disorder | journal = Expert Opinion on Drug Metabolism & Toxicology | volume = 14 | issue = 4 | pages = 475–482 | date = April 2018 | pmid = 29621905 | doi = 10.1080/17425255.2018.1459564 | s2cid = 4633923 }}

A buprenorphine implant (developmental code name SK-2110) is under development by Shenzhen ScienCare Pharmaceutical in China for the treatment of refractory major depressive disorder.{{cite web | title=SK 2110 | website=AdisInsight | date=25 August 2023 | url=https://adisinsight.springer.com/drugs/800074658 | access-date=27 September 2024}}{{cite web | title=8741810.PDF | url=https://file.finance.sina.com.cn/211.154.219.97:9494/MRGG/CNSESH_STOCK/2022/2022-12/2022-12-21/8741810.PDF#page=183 | access-date=7 August 2024 | quote=[SK2110 - Buprenorphine implant for the treatment of major depressive disorder SK2110 is an implant of buprenorphine hydrochloride for patients with major depression and refractory depression who cannot be relieved by taking at least two drugs. Buprenorphine hydrochloride was developed by Indivior and is a KOR1 antagonist and MOR1 agonist. Currently, the highest development stage of the drug is approval for marketing, which is used to treat opioid dependence, chronic pain, pain and substance-related disorders. The company changes the route of administration to prepare an implant, which can reduce the frequency of administration, improve the bioavailability of the drug, improve patient compliance, and maintain a stable blood drug concentration, thereby reducing adverse drug reactions. At the same time, the implanted administration method can also play a role in avoiding drug abuse. At present, the project is conducting laboratory preparation small-scale trial prescription process exploration and preliminary pharmacodynamic studies. SK2110 can take effect quickly and quickly relieve patients' depressive symptoms. It is expected to submit an IND application to my country's drug regulatory authorities in 2024.]}}

In combination with samidorphan or naltrexone (μ-opioid receptor antagonists), buprenorphine is under investigation for the treatment of cocaine dependence, and recently demonstrated effectiveness for this indication in a large-scale (n = 302) clinical trial (at a high buprenorphine dose of 16 mg, but not a low dose of 4 mg).{{cite journal | vauthors = Ling W, Hillhouse MP, Saxon AJ, Mooney LJ, Thomas CM, Ang A, Matthews AG, Hasson A, Annon J, Sparenborg S, Liu DS, McCormack J, Church S, Swafford W, Drexler K, Schuman C, Ross S, Wiest K, Korthuis PT, Lawson W, Brigham GS, Knox PC, Dawes M, Rotrosen J | title = Buprenorphine + naloxone plus naltrexone for the treatment of cocaine dependence: the Cocaine Use Reduction with Buprenorphine (CURB) study | journal = Addiction | volume = 111 | issue = 8 | pages = 1416–1427 | date = August 2016 | pmid = 26948856 | pmc = 4940267 | doi = 10.1111/add.13375 }}{{cite web | url = https://www.reuters.com/article/2012/05/29/idUS197896+29-May-2012+BW20120529 | work = Reuters | title = Alkermes Presents Positive Clinical Data of ALKS 5461 at 52nd Annual New Clinical Drug Evaluation Unit Meeting | year = 2012 | access-date = 30 June 2017 | archive-date = 24 September 2015 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150924164224/http://www.reuters.com/article/2012/05/29/idUS197896+29-May-2012+BW20120529 | url-status = dead }}

Buprenorphine has been used in the treatment of the neonatal abstinence syndrome,{{cite journal | vauthors = Kraft WK, Gibson E, Dysart K, Damle VS, Larusso JL, Greenspan JS, Moody DE, Kaltenbach K, Ehrlich ME | title = Sublingual buprenorphine for treatment of neonatal abstinence syndrome: a randomized trial | journal = Pediatrics | volume = 122 | issue = 3 | pages = e601–e607 | date = September 2008 | pmid = 18694901 | pmc = 2574639 | doi = 10.1542/peds.2008-0571 }} a condition in which newborns exposed to opioids during pregnancy demonstrate signs of withdrawal.{{cite journal | vauthors = Kraft WK, van den Anker JN | title = Pharmacologic management of the opioid neonatal abstinence syndrome | journal = Pediatric Clinics of North America | volume = 59 | issue = 5 | pages = 1147–1165 | date = October 2012 | pmid = 23036249 | pmc = 4709246 | doi = 10.1016/j.pcl.2012.07.006 }} In the United States, use currently is limited to infants enrolled in a clinical trial conducted under an FDA-approved investigational new drug (IND) application.{{ClinicalTrialsGov|NCT00521248|Buprenorphine for the Treatment of Neonatal Abstinence Syndrome}} Preliminary research suggests that buprenorphine is associated with shorter time in hospital for neonates, compared to methadone.{{cite journal | vauthors = Tran TH, Griffin BL, Stone RH, Vest KM, Todd TJ | title = Methadone, Buprenorphine, and Naltrexone for the Treatment of Opioid Use Disorder in Pregnant Women | journal = Pharmacotherapy | volume = 37 | issue = 7 | pages = 824–839 | date = July 2017 | pmid = 28543191 | doi = 10.1002/phar.1958 | quote = Currently, methadone and buprenorphine are both widely used as the backbone of MAT [medication-assisted treatment]. The distinguishing outcomes in studies among these two opioid agonists are that infants exposed to buprenorphine in clinical trials required shorter treatment duration, less medication to treat the NAS symptoms and experienced shorter hospitalizations compared to infants exposed to methadone. A caveat to these findings is that some of the supporting data were based on using buprenorphine in combination with naloxone instead of buprenorphine as a single agent. | s2cid = 13772333 }} An ethanolic formulation used in neonates is stable at room temperature for at least 30 days.{{cite journal | vauthors = Anagnostis EA, Sadaka RE, Sailor LA, Moody DE, Dysart KC, Kraft WK | title = Formulation of buprenorphine for sublingual use in neonates | journal = The Journal of Pediatric Pharmacology and Therapeutics | volume = 16 | issue = 4 | pages = 281–284 | date = October 2011 | pmid = 22768012 | pmc = 3385042 | doi = 10.5863/1551-6776-16.4.281 }}

Veterinarians administer buprenorphine for perioperative pain, particularly in cats, where its effects are similar to morphine. The drug's legal status and lower potential for human abuse makes it an attractive alternative to other opioids.{{cite web |vauthors=Martinez M |title=Options in perioperative analgesia: buprenorphine v. methadone |url=https://www.veterinary-practice.com/article/options-in-perioperative-analgesia-buprenorphine-v-methadone |website=Veterinary Practice |date=May 2014 |access-date=19 January 2022 |archive-date=19 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220119231147/https://www.veterinary-practice.com/article/options-in-perioperative-analgesia-buprenorphine-v-methadone |url-status=live }}

It has veterinary medical use for treatment of pain in dogs and cats, as well as other animals.{{cite web |url=http://www.cliniciansbrief.com/sites/default/files/attachments/MEDS_Bupreorphine.pdf |title=Buprenorphine | vauthors = Claude A |date=June 2015 |publisher=cliniciansbrief.com |access-date=25 February 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170516195037/http://www.cliniciansbrief.com/sites/default/files/attachments/MEDS_Bupreorphine.pdf |archive-date=16 May 2017 |url-status=dead }}{{cite book |vauthors=Kukanich B, Papich MG |veditors=Riviere JE, Papich MG |title=Veterinary Pharmacology and Therapeutics |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xAPa4WDzAnQC&pg=PA324 |edition=9th |date=14 May 2013 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=9781118685907 |pages=323–325 |chapter=Opioid Analgesic Drugs |access-date=25 December 2021 |archive-date=1 May 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230501050348/https://books.google.com/books?id=xAPa4WDzAnQC&pg=PA324 |url-status=live }}{{cite journal | vauthors = Steagall PV, Ruel HL, Yasuda T, Monteiro BP, Watanabe R, Evangelista MC, Beaudry F | title = Pharmacokinetics and analgesic effects of intravenous, intramuscular or subcutaneous buprenorphine in dogs undergoing ovariohysterectomy: a randomized, prospective, masked, clinical trial | journal = BMC Veterinary Research | volume = 16 | issue = 1 | pages = 154 | date = May 2020 | pmid = 32448336 | pmc = 7245774 | doi = 10.1186/s12917-020-02364-w | doi-access = free }}

{{Reflist}}

• {{cite magazine | vauthors = McGray D | date = 1 April 2005 | url = https://www.wired.com/2005/04/bupe/ | title = The bitter pill | magazine = Wired }}
• {{cite magazine | vauthors = Wood G | date = 7 May 2013 | url = https://newrepublic.com/article/113051/georgias-war-drugs-how-its-subutex-addiction-ended | title = Subu Must Die – How a nation of junkies went cold turkey | magazine = New Republic }}

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