camel urine
{{Short description|Liquid by-product of metabolism in camels}}
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Camel urine is a liquid by-product of metabolism in a camel's anatomy. Urine from camels has been used in medicine for centuries, being a part of ancient Bedouin, ayurvedic and Islamic Prophetic medicine. According to the World Health Organization, the use of camel urine as a medicine lacks scientific evidence.{{Cite web |last=Administrator |title=Observational study and literature review of the use of camel urine for treatment of cancer patients |url=http://www.emro.who.int/in-press/short-communications/observational-study-and-literature-review-of-the-use-of-camel-urine-for-treatment-of-cancer-patients.html |access-date=2023-06-08 |website=World Health Organization - Regional Office for the Eastern Mediterranean |language=en-gb |archive-date=2023-06-09 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230609064449/https://www.emro.who.int/in-press/short-communications/observational-study-and-literature-review-of-the-use-of-camel-urine-for-treatment-of-cancer-patients.html |url-status=live }} After the spread of MERS-CoV infections, the WHO urged people to refrain from drinking "raw camel milk or camel urine or eating meat that has not been properly cooked".
Composition
Camel urine comes out as a thick syrup.{{cite book| edition = 2nd| publisher = Oxford University Press, USA| isbn = 978-0192806819| last1 = Davidson| first1 = Alan| first2 = Jane|last2= Davidson| editor-first = Tom |editor-last = Jaine| title = The Oxford Companion to Food| date = 15 October 2006 | pages=68, 129, 266, 762}}{{cite web |url=http://www.bio.davidson.edu/Courses/anphys/1999/Blackwell/Kidney.htm| publisher = Davidson College | title = Kidneys and Concentrated Urine |work= Temperature and Water Relations in Dromedary Camels (Camelus dromedarius)|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20030225104431/http://www.bio.davidson.edu/Courses/anphys/1999/Blackwell/Kidney.htm|archive-date=February 25, 2003}}{{cite web | title = Fun facts about the Camel | work = The Jungle Store | access-date = 3 December 2012 | url = http://www.thejunglestore.com/Camels | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20121117070148/http://www.thejunglestore.com/Camels | archive-date = 17 November 2012 | url-status = dead }}{{cite web | last = Fedewa | first = Jennifer L. | title = Camelus bactrianus | work = Animal Diversity Web | access-date = 4 December 2012 | year = 2000 | url = http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/accounts/Camelus_bactrianus/ | publisher = University of Michigan Museum of Zoology | url-status = dead | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130526101843/http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/accounts/Camelus_bactrianus/ | archive-date = 26 May 2013 }}
The kidneys and intestines of a camel are very efficient at reabsorbing water. Camels' kidneys have a 1:4 cortex to medulla ratio.{{Cite journal|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/249746665|title=Morphometric analysis of heart, kidneys and adrenal glands in dromedary camel calves |journal=Journal of Camel Practice and Research |volume=14 |issue=1 |pages=27|language=en|access-date=2017-03-03|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170304040835/https://www.researchgate.net/publication/249746665_Morphometric_analysis_of_heart_kidneys_and_adrenal_glands_in_dromedary_camel_calves|archive-date=2017-03-04}} Thus, the medullary part of a camel's kidney occupies twice as much area as a cow's kidney. Secondly, renal corpuscles have a smaller diameter, which reduces surface area for filtration. These two major anatomical characteristics enable camels to conserve water and limit the volume of urine in extreme desert conditions.Rehan S and AS Qureshi, 2006. Microscopic evaluation of the heart, kidneys and adrenal glands of one-humped camel calves (Camelus dromedarius) using semi-automated image analysis system. J Camel Pract Res. 13(2): 123
Each kidney of an Arabian camel has a capacity of around 0.86 litres and can produce urine with high chloride concentrations. Like the horse, the dromedary has no gall bladder, an organ that requires water to function.{{cite journal|last1=Hegazi|first1=A.H.|title=The spleen of the camel compared with other domesticated animals and its microscopic examination|journal=Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association|date=1953|volume=122|issue=912|pages=182–4|pmid=13044660}} Consequently, bile flows constantly.{{cite book |last1=Giffen |first1=James M. |first2=Tom |last2=Gore |title=Horse Owner's Veterinary Handbook |edition=2nd |location=New York |publisher=Howell Book House |orig-year=1989 |year=1998 |isbn=0-87605-606-0 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/horseownersveter0002giff }} Most food is digested and absorbed into the bloodstream from the small intestine. Any remaining liquids and roughage move into the large intestine.
Ayurveda
In the Caraka-Samhita, camel urine is mentioned as being slightly bitter. It recommends it as a remedy for hiccups, cough, and hemorrhoids.{{Cite book |last=Sengupta |first=Kaviraj Nagendra Nath |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eRgP1VOzRTwC&pg=PR31 |title=Ayurvedic System Of Medicine (the) (in 2 Vols.) |date=1994 |publisher=Concept Publishing Company |isbn=978-81-7268-013-8 |language=en}} However, in the Yogacandrika, camel urine is referred to as having a remedial effect on various abdominal ailments. Furthermore, camel urine is prescribed for alleviating inflammation or =
edema, as per the Kāśyapa Samhitā.{{Cite journal |title=THERAPEUTIC USE OF URINE IN EARLY INDIAN MEDICINE |url=https://cahc.jainuniversity.ac.in/assets/ijhs/Vol39_4_2_ANThakur.pdf |journal=Indian Journal of History of Science}}
Islamic prophetic medicine
{{anchor | Islamic }}
A hadith in Book 4 (Ablution) of al-Bukhari's collection narrated by Anas ibn Malik was used to promote the consumption of Arabian camel urine as a medicine.David Waines. Milk, Encyclopedia of the Quran{{Cite web |url=https://sunnah.com/bukhari/76/9 |title=Bukhari 76:9 |access-date=2021-07-08 |archive-date=2021-07-09 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210709185101/https://sunnah.com/bukhari/76/9 |url-status=live }} The climate of Medina did not suit some people, so Muhammad ordered them to follow his shepherd and drink his camel's milk and urine (as a medicine). So they followed the shepherd and drank the camel's milk and urine till their bodies became healthy. Then they killed the shepherd and drove away the camels. When the news reached Muhammad, he sent some people in their pursuit. When they were brought, he cut their hands and feet and their eyes were branded with heated pieces of iron.{{cite web |url=https://sunnah.com/bukhari/4/100 |title=Sahih al-Bukhari 233|author=Muhammad al-Bukhari |author-link=Muhammad al-Bukhari |work=Sunnah.com |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200928181801/https://sunnah.com/bukhari/4/100|archive-date=2020-09-28}}{{cite web |author1=JB |title=Drinking Camel Urine in Yemen |url=https://www.vice.com/en_us/article/4w7gvn/drinking-camel-urine-in-yemen-fob-000300-v20n8 |website=VICE News |date=9 August 2013 |access-date=28 September 2019 |archive-date=28 September 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190928192717/https://www.vice.com/en_us/article/4w7gvn/drinking-camel-urine-in-yemen-fob-000300-v20n8 |url-status=live }}{{cite web | url=https://www.livingislam.org/ir/f/Camel%20Milk.html | title=Error404 | access-date=2022-09-14 | archive-date=2022-09-14 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220914084542/https://www.livingislam.org/ir/f/Camel%20Milk.html | url-status=live }} The authentic haditharabnews.com [https://www.arabnews.com/node/235933 Doubts Concerning a Hadith] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210827073436/https://www.arabnews.com/node/235933 |date=2021-08-27 }}, 18 August 2003 also states "Some people of ‘Ukl or ‘Uraina tribe came to Medina and its climate did not suit them ... So the Prophet ordered them to go to the herd of Milch camels and to drink their milk and urine (as a medicine). ... So they went as directed and after they became healthy". Bukhari also narrated, an otherwise identical version of this Hadith, without the mention of "urine".{{Cite web |url=https://sunnah.com/bukhari/76/8 |title=Bukhari 76:8 |access-date=2021-07-07 |archive-date=2021-07-09 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210709184934/https://sunnah.com/bukhari/76/8 |url-status=live }} The event has also been recorded in Sahih Muslim, History of the Prophets and Kings and Kitāb aṭ-ṭabaqāt al-kabīr.{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CrXgAAAAMAAJ&q=camel+urine+hadiths|title=The American Journal of Islamic Social Sciences|date=2007|publisher=Jointly published by the Association of Muslim Social Scientists; International Institute of Islamic Thought|language=en|access-date=2021-07-05|archive-date=2023-10-24|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231024105127/https://books.google.com/books?id=CrXgAAAAMAAJ&q=camel+urine+hadiths|url-status=live}}{{Cite web|title=Sahih Muslim - Book of Oaths, Muharibin, Retaliation, and Blood Money|url=https://muflihun.com/muslim/16/4130|access-date=2021-02-01|website=muflihun.com|language=en|archive-date=2021-02-06|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210206050541/https://muflihun.com/muslim/16/4130|url-status=live}}{{Cite web |url=https://sunnah.com/muslim/28 |title=Sahih Muslim 1671a - Book 28, Hadith 12 |access-date=2021-07-05 |archive-date=2021-07-09 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210709182958/https://sunnah.com/muslim/28 |url-status=live }}
Indian Islamic scholar Mohammad Najeeb Qasmi notes various theories proposed by Hanafi and Shaafi’e scholars for a canonical understanding of the implications. This book refers to topical application of milch camel urine as the actual word of the saying has the word Azmadu which means to apply a layer of something.{{Cite web|url=https://archive.org/details/14newenglishbooks|title = An Anthology of Reformative Articles}} However, Bachtiar Nasir, an Islamic scholar, advocated for and defended the consumption of camel urine, claiming the mixture of camel urine and milk has medicinal benefits.{{Cite web |last=Persio |first=Sofia Lotto |date=2018-01-09 |title=Indonesian Islamist Leader Drinks Camel Urine |url=https://www.newsweek.com/islamist-leader-drinks-camel-urine-video-saudi-arabia-sparking-debate-775698 |access-date=2024-11-03 |website=Newsweek |language=en}}
In Middle Eastern societies, camel urine is consumed as medicine, but some see its use as najis{{Cite journal |last1=Latifah |first1=Wachidah Nur |last2=Ngaeni |first2=Siti Nur |last3=Rahman |first3=Rian Adi Setia |last4=Azka |first4=Inarotu Millati |last5=Zaen |first5=Mohammad Ali Maqshudi |date=2018 |title=Camel Urine for Health in Islam and Science Perspective |url=https://www.neliti.com/publications/468956/camel-urine-for-health-in-islam-and-science-perspective |journal=Jurnal Kaunia |language=en |volume=14 |issue=1 |pages=15–19 |doi=10.14421/kaunia.1326 |doi-broken-date=2024-11-03 |issn=1829-5266}} — ritually unclean according to Islam Law.{{Cite book |last=Saptaningtyas |first=Haryani |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uSIGEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA77&dq |title="This is our belief around here": Purification in Islamic Thought and Pollution of Citarum River in West Java |date=2021-11-30 |publisher=LIT Verlag Münster |isbn=978-3-643-91326-5 |language=en}} However, in the Arabian Peninsula, bottled camel urine is still sold and consumed as prophetic medicine.{{cite web |author1=JB |title=Drinking Camel Urine in Yemen |url=https://www.vice.com/en_us/article/4w7gvn/drinking-camel-urine-in-yemen-fob-000300-v20n8 |website=VICE News |date=9 August 2013| access-date=6 April 2020 }}{{cite journal|title=Camel urine components display anti-cancer properties in vitro|url=https://www.academia.edu/37157852|date=2012|journal= Journal of Ethnopharmacology|volume=143|issue=3|pages=819–25|doi=10.1016/j.jep.2012.07.042|pmid=22922085|last1=Al-Yousef|first1=Nujoud|last2=Gaafar|first2=Ameera|last3=Al-Otaibi|first3=Basem|last4=Al-Jammaz|first4=Ibrahim|last5=Al-Hussein|first5=Khaled|last6=Aboussekhra|first6=Abdelilah}}
Medieval times
Avicenna in The Canon of Medicine noted that a mixture of camel milk and urine can be beneficial for some diseases such as dropsy and jaundice.{{Cite journal| volume = 10| pages = 2280–2286| last1 = Kashim| first1 = MIAM| last2 = Mohamad| first2 = Mohd Nasran| last3 = Sukor| first3 = Arina Shairah Abdul| last4 = Adnan| first4 = Nurul Ilyana Muhd| last5 = Safiai| first5 = Mohd Hafiz| last6 = Jamsari| first6 = Ezad Azraai| title = Animal urine therapy according to Islamic and scientific perspectives| journal = Int. J. Civ. Eng. Technol| date = 2019| url = https://www.researchgate.net/publication/332250307}}
Usage and research
In Yemen, camel urine is consumed and used for treating ailments, though it has been widely denounced. Some salons are said to use it as a treatment for hair loss. The camel urine from a virgin camel is priced at twenty dollars per liter, with herders saying that it has curative powers. It is traditionally mixed with milk.
Certain preclinical studies have claimed that camel urine possesses various therapeutic advantages, including antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, anticancer properties, and potential cardiovascular benefits. For example, in 2012, a study conducted at the Department of Molecular Oncology of King Faisal Specialist Hospital and Research Center, and published in the Journal of Ethnopharmacology, found that camel urine contains anti-cancerous agents that are cytotoxic against various, but not all, human cancer cell lines in vitro.{{cite journal |title=Camel urine components display anti-cancer properties in vitro |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22922085/ |journal=Journal of Ethnopharmacology |year=2012 |pmid=22922085 |last1=Al-Yousef |first1=N. |last2=Gaafar |first2=A. |last3=Al-Otaibi |first3=B. |last4=Al-Jammaz |first4=I. |last5=Al-Hussein |first5=K. |last6=Aboussekhra |first6=A. |volume=143 |issue=3 |pages=819–25 |doi=10.1016/j.jep.2012.07.042 |access-date=2021-01-23 |archive-date=2016-07-13 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160713212908/http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22922085 |url-status=live }}
A study published on the World Health Organization's Eastern Mediterranean Health Journal found that camel urine showed no clinical benefits in cancer patients, with two of the participants developing brucellosis. Given the lack of scientific evidence supporting the use of camel urine as a traditional medicine, it is advisable to discontinue its promotion.
In 2017, a joint study by King Faisal University and the University of Hong Kong found that experimental infections of dromedaries with MERS-CoV did not show any evidence of virus in the urine. Therefore, the camel urine is an unlikely source of virus transmission to humans.{{Cite journal|last1=Hemida|first1=M. G.|last2=Elmoslemany|first2=A.|last3=Al-Hizab|first3=F.|last4=Alnaeem|first4=A.|last5=Almathen|first5=F.|last6=Faye|first6=B.|last7=Chu|first7=D. K. W.|last8=Perera|first8=R. a. P. M.|last9=Peiris|first9=M.|date=2017|title=Dromedary Camels and the Transmission of Middle East Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus (MERS-CoV)|journal=Transboundary and Emerging Diseases|language=en|volume=64|issue=2|pages=344–353|doi=10.1111/tbed.12401|issn=1865-1682|pmc=4749478|pmid=26256102}}{{Cite journal|last1=Adney|first1=Danielle R.|last2=Doremalen|first2=Neeltje van|last3=Brown|first3=Vienna R.|last4=Bushmaker|first4=Trenton|last5=Scott|first5=Dana|last6=Wit|first6=Emmie de|last7=Bowen|first7=Richard A.|last8=Munster|first8=Vincent J.|title=Replication and Shedding of MERS-CoV in Upper Respiratory Tract of Inoculated Dromedary Camels - Volume 20, Number 12—December 2014 - Emerging Infectious Diseases journal - CDC|journal=Emerging Infectious Diseases|year=2014|volume=20|issue=12|pages=1999–2005|language=en-us|doi=10.3201/eid2012.141280|pmc=4257817|pmid=25418529}}