chili pepper

Capsicum plants originated in modern-day Peru and Bolivia, and have been a part of human diets since about 7,500 BC.{{cite journal | author=B Pickersgill | title=Relationships Between Weedy and Cultivated Forms in Some Species of Chili Peppers (Genus Capsicum) | journal=Evolution; International Journal of Organic Evolution | volume=25 | issue=4 | pages=683–691 | date=December 1971 | pmid=28564789 | doi=10.1111/j.1558-5646.1971.tb01926.x | s2cid=205772121 | doi-access=free }}{{cite book|chapter-url=http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/proceedings1996/V3-479.html| author=PW Bosland | date=1998 | chapter=Capsicums: Innovative uses of an ancient crop | pages=479–487 | veditors=Janick J | title=Progress in New Crops | publisher=ASHS Press |location=Arlington, Virginia |access-date=23 December 2010}} They are one of the oldest cultivated crops in the Americas. Chili peppers were cultivated in east-central Mexico some 6,000 years ago,{{cite web |url=http://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2014-04/uoc--bot041614.php |title=Birthplace of the domesticated chili pepper identified in Mexico |publisher= EurekaAlert, American Association for the Advancement of Science|date=21 April 2014}}{{cite journal |vauthors=Kraft KH, Brown CH, Nabhan GP, Luedeling E, Luna Ruiz J, d'Eeckenbrugge GC, Hijmans RJ, Gepts P |title=Multiple lines of evidence for the origin of domesticated chili pepper, Capsicum annuum, in Mexico |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America |volume=111 |issue=17 |pages=6165–6170 |date=April 2014 |pmid=24753581 |pmc=4035960 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1308933111 | doi-access=free |bibcode=2014PNAS..111.6165K}} and independently across different locations in the Americas including highland Peru and Bolivia, central Mexico, and the Amazon.{{cite journal |vauthors=Chiou KL, Hastorf CA |title=A Systematic Approach to Species-Level Identification of Chile Pepper (Capsicum spp.) Seeds: Establishing the Groundwork for Tracking the Domestication and Movement of Chile Peppers through the Americas and Beyond |journal=Economic Botany |date=16 December 2014 |volume=68 |issue=3 |publisher=New York Botanical Garden Press |pages=316–336 |doi=10.1007/s12231-014-9279-2 |jstor=43305668 |bibcode=2014EcBot..68..316C |s2cid=36556206 }} They were among the first self-pollinating crops cultivated in those areas.{{Cite journal |vauthors=Carrizo García C, Barfuss MH, Sehr EM, Barboza GE, Samuel R, Moscone EA, Ehrendorfer F |date=July 2016 |title=Phylogenetic relationships, diversification and expansion of chili peppers ( Capsicum, Solanaceae) |journal=Annals of Botany |volume=118 |issue=1 |pages=35–51 |doi=10.1093/aob/mcw079 |issn=0305-7364 |pmc=4934398 |pmid=27245634 }}

Peru has the highest diversity of cultivated Capsicum; it is a center of diversification where varieties of all five domesticates were introduced, grown, and consumed in pre-Columbian times.{{cite journal |author1=Maarten van Zonneveld |author2=Marleni Ramirez |author3=David E. Williams |author4=Michael Petz |author5=Sven Meckelmann |author6=Teresa Avila |author7=Carlos Bejarano |author8=Llermé Ríos |author9=Karla Peña |author10=Matthias Jäger |author11=Dimary Libreros |author12=Karen Amaya |author13=Xavier Scheldeman | title=Screening Genetic Resources of Capsicum Peppers in Their Primary Center of Diversity in Bolivia and Peru | journal=PLOS ONE | volume=10 | issue=9 | pages=e0134663 | year=2015 | pmid=26402618 | pmc=4581705 | doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0134663 | doi-access=free | bibcode=2015PLoSO..1034663V }} The largest diversity of wild Capsicum peppers is consumed in Bolivia. Bolivian consumers distinguish two basic forms: ulupicas, species with small round fruits including C. eximium, C. cardenasii, C. eshbaughii, and C. caballeroi landraces; and arivivis with small elongated fruits including C. baccatum var. baccatum and C. chacoense varieties.

File:Leiden University Library - Seikei Zusetsu vol. 25, page 019 - 蕃椒 - Capsicum annuum L., 1804 (cropped).jpg, 1804]]

{{further|Columbian exchange}}

When Christopher Columbus and his crew reached the Caribbean, they were the first Europeans to encounter Capsicum fruits. They called them "peppers" because, like black pepper (Piper nigrum), which had long been known in Europe, they have a hot spicy taste unlike other foods.{{cite book |vauthors=Bosland PW, Votava E |title=Peppers: Vegetable and Spice Capsicums |date=2000 |publisher=CABI |location=New York City |isbn=978-0-85199-335-5 |page=1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ESCNZMvMAYAC |access-date=29 November 2018}}{{cite web |url=https://cpi.nmsu.edu/chile-info/for-kids-pages/the-story-of-chile-peppers.html |title=The Story of Chile Peppers |website=New Mexico State University Chile Pepper Institute |access-date=7 August 2024}} Chilies were first brought back to Europe by the Spanish, who financed Columbus's voyages, at the start of the large-scale interchange of plants and culture between the New World and the Old World called the Columbian exchange. Chilies appear in Spanish records by 1493. Unlike Piper vines, which grow naturally only in the tropics, chilies could be grown in temperate climates. By the mid-1500s, they had become a common garden plant in Spain and were incorporated into numerous dishes. By 1526, they had appeared in Italy, in 1543 in Germany, and by 1569 in the Balkans, where they came to be processed into paprika.{{cite book |vauthors=Sauer JD |title=Historical Geography of Crop Plants A Select Roster |date=2017 |publisher=CRC Press |isbn=978-1-351-44062-2 |page=161}}{{cite book |author=S Raghavan |title=Handbook of Spices, Seasonings, and Flavorings |date=2006 |publisher=CRC Press |isbn=978-1-4200-0436-6 |page=8}}

The rapid introduction of chilies to Africa and Asia was likely through Portuguese and Spanish traders in the 16th century, though the details are unrecorded. The Portuguese introduced them first to Africa and Arabia, and then to their colonies and trading posts in Asia, including Goa, Sri Lanka, and Malacca. From there, chilies spread to neighboring regions in South Asia and western Southeast Asia via local trade and natural dispersal. Around the same time, the Spanish also introduced chilies to the Philippines, where they spread to Melanesia, Micronesia, and other Pacific Islands via their monopoly of the Manila galleons. Their spread to East Asia in the late 16th century is less clear, but was likely also through local trade or through Portuguese and Spanish trading ports in Canton, China, and Nagasaki, Japan.{{cite web |last=Wallin |first=Nils-Bertil |date=11 June 2004|title=Chili: Small Fruit Sets Global Palettes on Fire |url=https://archive-yaleglobal.yale.edu/chili-small-fruit-sets-global-palettes-fire |website=YaleGlobal Online |publisher=Yale University |access-date=5 January 2024 }}{{cite book |vauthors=DeWitt D |title=Chile Peppers A Global History |date=2020 |publisher=University of New Mexico Press |isbn=978-0-8263-6180-6}}{{cite book |vauthors=Collingham E |author-link=Lizzie Collingham | title=Curry |url=https://archive.org/details/currytaleofcooks00coll| url-access=registration |publisher=Oxford University Press |date=February 2006 |isbn=978-0-09-943786-4 }}{{cite book |vauthors=Raj NM, Peter KV, Nybe EV |title=Spices |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HHs6ANrJ-MEC&pg=PA107|date=1 January 2007 |publisher=New India Publishing |isbn=978-81-89422-44-8 |pages=107–}} The earliest known mention of the chili pepper in Chinese writing dates to 1591, though the pepper is thought to have entered the country in the 1570s.{{cite book |author=Brian R. Dott |year=2020 |title=The Chile Pepper in China |page=21 |publisher=Columbia University Press |isbn=978-0-231-55130-4 |quote=The earliest known record for chiles in a Chinese source is from Hangzhou, Zhejiang, in 1591}}

Chili peppers are the shiny, brightly coloured fruits of species of Capsicum.{{cite web |title=HORT410. Peppers – Notes |publisher=Purdue University Department of Horticulture and Landscape Architecture |url=https://hort.purdue.edu/rhodcv/hort410/pepper/pe00001.htm |access-date=20 October 2009 |archive-date=26 December 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181226060452/https://hort.purdue.edu/rhodcv/hort410/pepper/pe00001.htm%0A%20 |quote=Common name: pepper. Latin name: Capsicum annuum L. ... Harvested organ: fruit. Fruit varies substantially in shape, pericarp thickness, color and pungency.}} Botanically they are berries. The plants are small, {{convert|20|to|60|cm|in}} depending on variety, making them suitable for growing in pots, greenhouses, or commercially in polytunnels. The plants are perennial, provided they are protected from cold. The fruits can be green, orange, red, or purple, and vary in shape from round and knobbly to smooth and elongated. If the fruits are picked green and unripe, more flowers develop, yielding more fruit; fruits left on the plant can become hotter in taste, and acquire their ripe coloration, at the price of a reduced harvest.

Ideal growing conditions for peppers include a sunny position with warm, loamy soil, ideally {{convert|21|to|29|°C|°F}}, that is moist but not waterlogged.{{cite web |title=Growing Peppers: The Important Facts |url=http://www.gardenersgardening.com/growingpeppers.html |publisher=GardenersGardening.com |access-date=10 January 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130127080844/http://www.gardenersgardening.com/growingpeppers.html |archive-date=27 January 2013}} The seeds germinate only when warm, close to {{convert|21|C|F}}. The plants prefer warm conditions, but can tolerate temperatures down to {{convert|12|C|F}}; and are sensitive to cold.{{cite web |url=https://www.rhs.org.uk/advice/grow-your-own/vegetables/chilli-pepper |title=How to grow chilli pepper / RHS Gardening}} The flowers can self-pollinate. However, at extremely high temperatures, {{convert|30|to|38|°C|°F}}, pollen loses viability, and its flowers are much less likely to result in fruit.{{Cite web |title=The Effect of Extreme Temperatures on the Tomato and Pepper Crop |url=https://www.ontario.ca/page/effect-extreme-temperatures-tomato-and-pepper-crop |publisher=King's Printer for Ontario, 2012–24, Canada}} For flowering, Capsicum is a non-photoperiod-sensitive crop.{{Cite book |editor=Hui YH |title=Handbook of Food Science, Technology, and Engineering |publisher=Taylor & Francis |year=2005 |isbn=978-1-4665-0787-6 |pages=20–13}}

Chilies are vulnerable to pests including aphids, glasshouse red spider mite, and glasshouse whitefly, all of which feed on plant sap. Common diseases include grey mould caused by Botrytis cinerea; this rots the tissues and produces a brownish-grey mould on the surface.

File:Achill.jpg|Young plants

File:Buds and flowers of chili plants.jpg|Buds and flowers

File:Chili pepper.jpg|Immature chilies in the field

File:Shan Hills, Myanmar, Red chili pepper plant.jpg|Ripe chilies in the field, Myanmar

File:Capsicum leaf deformated after aphids.jpg|Leaf damaged by aphids

File:Chilli paper bd.jpg|Ripe chili pepper with seeds

Harvested chilies may be used fresh, or dried, typically on the ground in hot countries, to make a variety of products. Drying enables chilies grown in temperate regions to be used in winter. For home use, chilies can be dried by threading them with cotton and hanging them up in a warm dry place to dry.{{cite web |title=How to dry chillies |url=https://www.gardenersworld.com/how-to/grow-plants/how-to-store-chillies/ |website=BBC Gardeners' World Magazine |access-date=12 October 2024 |date=4 September 2019}}

File:Chillies drying in Kathmandu.jpg|Chili peppers drying in Kathmandu, Nepal

File:Andhra Chillies.jpg|Guntur chilli drying in the sun, Andhra Pradesh, India

File:Red chili peppers Mesilla NM.jpg|New Mexico chiles dried on the plant in Mesilla, New Mexico

File:Sundried chilli.jpg|Sundried chili at Imogiri, Yogyakarta, Indonesia

File:Ristras Drying.jpg|alt=Chili peppers drying in hanging ristras|Ristras of chili peppers drying in Arizona

File:Mujer chiles 3.JPG|Removing seeds and pith from dried chilies in San Pedro Atocpan, Mexico

File:Chipotlestipicos.jpg|Smoke-dried chipotle

Products include whole dried chilies, chili flakes, and chili powder,{{cite book |vauthors=Farrell KT |title=Spices, Condiments and Seasonings |publisher=Chapman & Hall |year=1998 |isbn=978-0-8342-1337-1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ehAFUhWV4QMC&pg=PA215 |pages=215–217}} Fresh or dried chilies are used to make hot sauce, a liquid condiment—usually bottled for commercial use—that adds spice to other dishes.{{cite book |vauthors=Thompson JT |title=Hot Sauce! |publisher=Storey Publishers |location=North Adams, Massachusetts |isbn=978-1-60342-813-2 |page=15 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2Wtp8EDOKaEC&q=%22hot%20sauce%22%201807&pg=PA15 |date=2012-04-24}} Dried chilies are used to make chili oil, cooking oil infused with chili.{{Cite web |title=What is chili crisp? This spicy condiment belongs on everything — even dessert |url=https://www.today.com/food/what-chili-crisp-spicy-condiment-belongs-everything-t220671 |access-date=28 April 2022 |website=Today.com |date=3 June 2021}}

File:Inle Lake, Dried red chili (chilli) pepper, Capsicum annuum, Myanmar.jpg|Dried chili pepper flakes, Myanmar

File:India - Kolkata 2 - 24 - New Market spice shops (3504585620).jpg|Chili powder, India

Hot Sauce Selection At La Whole Food Store (84224397).jpeg|Brands of hot sauce, California

File:Homemade Chili Oil (28909017356).jpg|Chili oil

In 2020, 36 million tonnes of green chilies and peppers (counted as any Capsicum or Pimenta fruits) were produced worldwide, with China producing 46% of the total.{{cite web|title=Green chili production in 2020; Crops/World Regions/Production Quantity/Green Chillies and Peppers from pick lists|url=http://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/QC|publisher=UN Food and Agriculture Organization, Statistics Division (FAOSTAT)|access-date=17 May 2022|date=2022}}

{{main list|List of Capsicum cultivars}}

Species of Capsicum that produce chili peppers are shown on the simplified phylogenetic tree,{{cite journal |vauthors=Shiragaki K, Yokoi S, Tezuka T |first3=Takahiro |title=Phylogenetic Analysis and Molecular Diversity of Capsicum Based on rDNA-ITS Region |journal=Horticulturae |volume=6 |issue=4 |date=20 November 2020 |doi=10.3390/horticulturae6040087 |doi-access=free |page=87}} with examples of cultivars:{{cite book |vauthors=Normah MN, Chin HF, Reed BM |title=Conservation of tropical plant species |date=2013 |publisher=Springer |location=New York |isbn=978-1-4614-3775-8 |page=397 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=p9MKNopksAgC |access-date=28 November 2018}} The World Vegetable Center has one of the largest collection of chili peppers in the world. It has researched climate change resistant cultivars.{{cite web |author-link=Clarissa Wei |last1=Wei |first1=Clarissa |title=The Quest to Save Chili Peppers |url=https://www.newyorker.com/science/elements/the-quest-to-save-chili-peppers |website=newyorker.com |publisher=The New Yorker |access-date=17 June 2023}}

{{clade

|label1=Capsicum

|1={{clade

|1={{clade

|1={{clade

|1={{clade

|1={{clade

|1=C. annuum: bell peppers, 19px wax, cayenne, jalapeño, Thai, chiltepin, New Mexico chile 16px

|2={{clade

|1=C. frutescens: tabasco, malagueta, labuyo, piri piri, kambuzi 16px

|2=C. chinense: hottest peppers, e.g. naga, habanero, datil, Scotch bonnet 16px16px16px

}}

}}

|2=C. baccatum: aji 16px

}}

|2=C. pubescens: rocoto, chile de caballo 16px

}}

|2=C. eximium{{efn|C. eximium is used as a spice in Bolivia.{{cite journal |vauthors=Heiser CB, Smith PG |title=New Species of Capsicum from South America |journal=Brittonia |volume=10 |issue=4 |date=15 October 1958 |pages=194–201 |doi=10.2307/2804950 |jstor=2804950 |bibcode=1958Britt..10..194H }} }}

}}

|2=C. lycianthoides

}}

}}

File:A Fat Red Cayenne Pepper.jpg|Cayenne peppers, a cultivar of Capsicum annuum

File:Tabasco peppers.JPG|Tabasco peppers, a cultivar of Capsicum frutescens, fruits pointing upwards

File:Habanero chile - fruits (aka).jpg|Habanero peppers, a cultivar of Capsicum chinense

File:Cubanelle Peppers.jpg|Cubanelle peppers,
United States

File:HotPeppersinMarket.jpg|Scotch bonnets,
Caribbean

File:Phrik haeng.jpg|Bird's eye chilies,
Thailand

File:청양고추3.jpg|Cheongyang peppers,
South Korea

File:Black pearl cultivar.jpg|Black Pearl cultivar of C. annuum

File:Pimientos choriceros.jpg|Choricero,
Spain

File:Chili peppers cultivated in Myanmar.jpg|Purple chilies,
Myanmar

{{main|Capsaicin}}

{{multiple image

|width = 200

|direction = vertical

|image1 = Capsaicin.svg

|caption1 = Chemical structure

|image2 = Capsaicin-3D-vdW.png

|caption2 = Space-filling model

|footer = Capsaicin, the principal molecule that gives chili its heat

}}

The substances that give chili peppers their pungency (spicy heat) when ingested or applied topically are capsaicin (8-methyl-N-vanillyl-6-nonenamide) and several related chemicals, collectively called capsaicinoids.{{cite journal |vauthors=Kosuge S, Inagaki Y, Okumura H |date=1961 |title=Studies on the pungent principles of red pepper. Part VIII. On the chemical constitutions of the pungent principles. |journal=Nippon Nogeikagaku Kaishi |volume=35 |pages=923–927 |doi=10.1271/nogeikagaku1924.35.10_923 |doi-access=free }} Chem. Abstr. 1964, 60, 9827g.{{cite journal |language=Japanese |vauthors=Kosuge S, Inagaki Y |title=Studies on the pungent principles of red pepper. Part XI. Determination and contents of the two pungent |journal=Journal of the Agricultural Chemical Society of Japan |date=1962 |volume=36 |pages=251–254 }} Pure capsaicin is a hydrophobic, colorless, odorless, and crystalline-to-waxy solid at room temperature.{{cite web |url=https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/1548943 |publisher=PubChem, US National Library of Medicine |title=Capsaicin |date=27 May 2023 |access-date=1 June 2023}} The quantity of capsaicin varies by variety, and depends on growing conditions. Water-stressed peppers usually produce stronger fruits. When a habanero plant is stressed, for example by shortage of water, the concentration of capsaicin increases in some parts of the fruit.{{cite journal |vauthors=Ruiz-Lau N, Medina-Lara F, Minero-García Y, Zamudio-Moreno E, Guzmán-Antonio A, Echevarría-Machado I, Martínez-Estévez M |title=Water Deficit Affects the Accumulation of Capsaicinoids in Fruits of Capsicum chinense Jacq. |journal=HortScience |date=1 March 2011 |volume=46 |issue=3 |pages=487–492 |doi=10.21273/HORTSCI.46.3.487 |doi-access=free}}

When peppers are consumed by mammals such as humans, capsaicin binds with pain receptors in the mouth and throat, potentially evoking pain via spinal relays to the brainstem and thalamus where heat and discomfort are perceived.{{cite journal |vauthors=O'Neill J, Brock C, Olesen AE, Andresen T, Nilsson M, Dickenson AH |title=Unravelling the mystery of capsaicin: a tool to understand and treat pain |journal=Pharmacological Reviews |volume=64 |issue=4 |pages=939–971 |date=October 2012 |pmid=23023032 |pmc=3462993 |doi=10.1124/pr.112.006163 }} However, birds are unable to perceive the hotness and so they can eat some of the hottest peppers. The intensity of the "heat" of chili peppers is commonly reported in Scoville heat units (SHU), invented by American pharmacist Wilbur Scoville in 1912. Historically, it was a measure of the dilution of an amount of chili extract added to sugar syrup before its heat becomes undetectable to a panel of tasters; the more it has to be diluted to be undetectable, the more powerful the variety, and therefore the higher the rating.{{cite web |url=http://www.tabasco.com/info_booth/faq/scoville_how.cfm |title=History of the Scoville Scale | FAQS |publisher=Tabasco.Com |access-date=23 December 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100823044606/http://www.tabasco.com/info_booth/faq/scoville_how.cfm |archive-date=23 August 2010 }} Since the 1980s, spice heat has been assessed quantitatively by high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), which measures the concentration of heat-producing capsaicinoids, typically with capsaicin content as the main measure.{{cite journal |vauthors=Guzmán I, Bosland PW |title=Sensory properties of chili pepper heat - and its importance to food quality and cultural preference |journal=Appetite |volume=117 |pmid=28662907 |year=2017 |pages=186–190 |doi=10.1016/j.appet.2017.06.026 |doi-access=free}}

Capsaicin is produced by the plant as a defense against mammalian predators. A study suggests that by protecting against attack by a hemipteran bug, the risk of disease caused by a Fusarium fungus carried by the insects is reduced.{{cite journal |vauthors=Tewksbury JJ, Reagan KM, Machnicki NJ, Carlo TA, Haak DC, Peñaloza AL, Levey DJ |title=Evolutionary ecology of pungency in wild chilies |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America |volume=105 |issue=33 |pages=11808–11811 |date=August 2008 |pmid=18695236 |pmc=2575311 |doi=10.1073/pnas.0802691105 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2008PNAS..10511808T }} As evidence, the study notes that peppers increased the quantity of capsaicin in proportion to the damage caused by fungi on the plant's seeds.

A wide range of intensity is found in commonly used peppers:

{{further|Hottest chili pepper}}

The top 8 world's hottest chili peppers (by country) are:

{{nutritionalvalue | name=Peppers, hot chili, red, raw | source_usda=1| water=88 g | kJ=166 | protein=1.9 g | fat=0.4 g | carbs=8.8 g | fiber=1.5 g | sugars=5.3 g | vitC_mg=144 | vitA_ug=48 | betacarotene_ug=534 | vitB6_mg=0.51 | potassium_mg=322 | magnesium_mg=23 | iron_mg=1|opt1n=Capsaicin|opt1v=0.01g – 6 g

| note=[https://fdc.nal.usda.gov/fdc-app.html#/food-details/170106/nutrients Link to USDA Database entry]}}

Red hot chili peppers are 88% water, 9% carbohydrates, 2% protein, and 0.4% fat (table). In a 100 gram reference amount, chili peppers supply 40 calories, and are a rich source of vitamin C and vitamin B₆.[https://fdc.nal.usda.gov/fdc-app.html#/food-details/170106/nutrients Link to USDA Database entry]

Due to their unique pungency (spicy heat), chili peppers constitute a crucial part of many cuisines around the world, particularly in Chinese (especially in Sichuanese food), Mexican, Thai, Indian, Yoruba, New Mexican cuisine and many other South American, Caribbean and East Asian cuisines. In 21st-century Asian cuisine, chili peppers are commonly used across many regions.{{cite magazine |date=14 June 2007 |title=Chili Peppers: Global Warming |url=https://content.time.com/time/specials/2007/article/0,28804,1628191_1626317_1632291,00.html |access-date=25 May 2019 |magazine=Time |vauthors=Robinson S}}{{cite web |date=20 February 2015 |title=What's driving the global chili pepper craze? |url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/johnmcquaid/2015/02/20/whats-driving-the-global-chili-pepper-craze/#367c71eb7e0d |access-date=25 May 2019 |work=Forbes Media |vauthors=McQuaid J}} Chili is a key ingredient in many curries, providing the desired amount of heat; mild curries may be flavoured with many other spices, and may omit chili altogether.{{cite book |vauthors=Jaffrey M |author-link=Madhur Jaffrey |title=Madhur Jaffrey's Indian Cookery |date=1982 |publisher=BBC |isbn=978-0-563-16491-3 |pages=7–10}}

Chilies with a low capsaicin content can be cooked like bell peppers, for example stuffing and roasting them. Hotter varieties need to be handled with care to avoid contact with skin or eyes; washing does not efficiently remove capsaicin from skin. Chilies can be roasted over very hot coals or grilled for a short time, as they break up if overcooked.{{cite web |vauthors=Pratt J |title=Chili recipes |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/food/chilli |website=BBC Food}}

The leaves of every species of Capsicum are edible, being mildly bitter and nowhere near as hot as the fruits. They are cooked as greens in Filipino cuisine, where they are called dahon ng sili (literally "chili leaves"). They are used in the chicken soup tinola.{{Cite web | title=Dahon ng Sili (Chili pepper leaves) |url=https://tribo.org/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070312093900/http://www.tribo.org/vegetables/dahongsili.html | work=Tribo ความสุขบนเตียง |archive-date=12 March 2007}} In Korean cuisine, the leaves may be used in kimchi.{{cite web | title=Vitamin Rich Chili pepper Leaf Kimchi | work=Ssoft International Corporation | url=http://sfood.info/cuisine/kimchi/k35.htm | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091114231725/http://sfood.info/cuisine/kimchi/k35.htm| archive-date=14 November 2009}}

Chilies are present in many cuisines. In Peru, Papa a la huancaina is a dish of potatoes in a sauce of fresh cheese and aji amarillo chilies. In Thailand, kaeng tai pla fish curry is flavoured with a tai pla sauce made with garlic, shallots, galangal, kaffir lime, turmeric, fish paste, and bird's eye chilies. In Jamaica, jerk chicken is spiced with powerful habanero chilies and allspice. Goan vindaloo curry uses the extremely hot ghost pepper or bhut jolokia to create "perhaps [India's] hottest dish".{{cite web |vauthors=Eugenio R |title=Some like it hot: searching the seven continents for the best spicy dishes |url=https://www.cathaypacific.com/cx/en_GB/inspiration/dining/spiciest-dishes-in-world.html |publisher=Cathay Pacific |access-date=12 October 2024 |date=18 February 2024}} In Bhutan, ema datshi, entirely made of chili mixed with local cheese, is the national dish.{{cite web |vauthors=Subramanian S |date=2023-10-23 |title=This is what it's like hiking the newly reopened Trans-Bhutan Trail |url=https://www.cntraveller.in/story/hiking-the-trans-bhutan-trail-an-ancient-journey-restored-after-60-years/ |access-date=12 October 2024 |website=Condé Nast Traveller India |quote=the stew of green peppers and cheese, fiery as arson, that is the national dish }}{{cite web |vauthors=Ramesh N |title=Ema Datshi |url=https://www.196flavors.com/ema-datshi/ |website=196 Flavors |access-date=12 October 2024}} Many Mexican dishes use chilies of different types, including the jalapeño, poblano, habanero, serrano, chipotle, ancho, pasilla, guajillo, de árbol, cascabel and mulato. These offer a wide range of flavours including citrus, earthy, fruity, and grassy. They are used in many dishes and the spicy mole sauce and Mexican salsa sauces.{{cite web |title=Ancho to serrano: a guide to Mexican chillies |url=https://www.greatbritishchefs.com/features/mexican-chilli-guide |website=Great British Chefs |access-date=12 October 2024}} In Yoruba cuisine, chillies are well used in many dishes including Ewa Agoyin{{Cite web |last=Chidi |first=Chef |date=2017-11-19 |title=Ewa Agoyin - Yoruba Pepper Sauce for Beans |url=https://allnigerianfoods.com/ewa-agoyin/ |access-date=2025-03-09 |website=All Nigerian Foods |language=en-US}} and Obe ata.

File:Lamb Chops With Guajillo Chili Sauce and Charro Beans (cropped).jpg|Mexican lamb chops with guajillo chili sauce and charro beans

File:Taj Mahal - Lamb Curry Madras.jpg|Lamb Madras curry

File:Chilli pickle in a plate 2.jpg|Pickled chili in India

File:Chili pepper dip Amman.JPG|Chili pepper dip in a traditional restaurant in Amman, Jordan

File:Tinolang Manok.jpg|Filipino tinola chicken soup with labuyo chili leaves

File:Black Pearl - Ornamental Pepper.JPG

The contrast in color and appearance makes chili plants interesting to some as a purely decorative garden plant.

• Black pearl pepper: small cherry-shaped fruits and dark brown to black leaves{{cite web |url=http://www.usna.usda.gov/Research/BlackPearl.html |title=New Ornamental Pepper Wins Prestigious Award |date=2006 |website=The United States National Arboretum|access-date=11 October 2024}}
• Black Hungarian pepper: green foliage, highlighted by purple veins and purple flowers, jalapeño-shaped fruits{{cite web |title=Chilies as Ornamental Plants |url=http://www.seedsbydesign.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=category&layout=blog&id=1478&Itemid=42 |work=Seedsbydesign |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130515183915/http://www.seedsbydesign.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=category&layout=blog&id=1478&Itemid=42 |archive-date=15 May 2013 }}
• Bishop's crown pepper, Christmas bell pepper: named for its distinct three-sided shape resembling a red bishop's crown or a red Christmas bell{{cite web |last1=Datiles |first1=MJ |last2=Acevedo-Rodriguez |first2=P |title=Capsicum baccatum (pepper) |date=2014 |url=https://www.cabidigitallibrary.org/doi/full/10.1079/cabicompendium.120109 |publisher=CABI Digital Library |doi=10.1079/cabicompendium.120109 |access-date=17 October 2024}}

Psychologist Paul Rozin suggests that eating ordinary chilies is an example of a "constrained risk" like riding a roller coaster, in which extreme sensations like pain and fear can be enjoyed because individuals know that these sensations are not actually harmful. This method lets people experience extreme feelings without any significant risk of bodily harm.{{cite journal |vauthors=Rozin P, Schiller D |s2cid=143848453 |year=1980 |title=The Nature and Acquisition of a Preference for Chili Pepper by Humans |journal=Motivation and Emotion |volume=4 |issue=1 |pages=77–101 |doi=10.1007/BF00995932 }}

Capsaicin, the pungent chemical in chili peppers, is used as an analgesic in topical ointments, nasal sprays, and dermal patches to relieve pain.{{cite journal | vauthors=Fattori V, Hohmann MS, Rossaneis AC, Pinho-Ribeiro FA, Verri WA | title=Capsaicin: Current Understanding of Its Mechanisms and Therapy of Pain and Other Pre-Clinical and Clinical Uses | journal=Molecules | volume=21 | issue=7 | page=844 | date=June 2016 | pmid=27367653 | pmc=6273101 | doi=10.3390/molecules21070844 | doi-access=free }} A 2022 review of preliminary research indicated that regular consumption of chili peppers was associated with weak evidence for a lower risk of death from cardiovascular diseases and cancer.{{cite journal | vauthors=Kaur M, Verma BR, Zhou L, Lak HM, Kaur S, Sammour YM, Kapadia SR, Grimm RA, Griffin BP, Xu B | display-authors=6 | title=Association of pepper intake with all-cause and specific cause mortality - A systematic review and meta-analysis | journal=American Journal of Preventive Cardiology | volume=9 | page=100301 | date=March 2022 | pmid=34977833 | pmc=8688560 | doi=10.1016/j.ajpc.2021.100301 }}

{{further|Pepper spray|Chili grenade}}

Capsaicin extracted from chilies is used in pepper sprays and some tear gas formulations as a chemical irritant, for use as less-lethal weapons for control of unruly individuals or crowds.{{cite journal | vauthors=Haar RJ, Iacopino V, Ranadive N, Weiser SD, Dandu M | title=Health impacts of chemical irritants used for crowd control: a systematic review of the injuries and deaths caused by tear gas and pepper spray | journal=BMC Public Health | volume=17 | issue=1 | page=831 | date=October 2017 | pmid=29052530 | pmc=5649076 | doi=10.1186/s12889-017-4814-6 | doi-access=free }} Such products have considerable potential for misuse, and may cause injury or death.

Conflicts between farmers and elephants have long been widespread in African and Asian countries, where elephants nightly destroy crops, raid grain houses, and sometimes kill people. Farmers have found the use of chilies effective in crop defense against elephants. Elephants do not like capsaicin due to their large and sensitive olfactory and nasal system. The smell of chili causes them discomfort and deters them from feeding on the crops. By planting a few rows of the fruit around valuable crops, farmers create a buffer zone through which the elephants are reluctant to pass. Chili dung bombs are also used for this purpose. They are bricks made of mixing dung and chili, and are burned, creating a noxious smoke that keeps hungry elephants out of farmers' fields. This can lessen dangerous physical confrontation between people and elephants.{{cite magazine| vauthors=Mott M |title=Elephant Crop Raids Foiled by Chili Peppers, Africa Project Finds|url=http://news.nationalgeographic.co.in/news/2006/09/060918-elephants-chili.html|magazine=National Geographic|access-date=23 October 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131029194226/http://news.nationalgeographic.co.in/news/2006/09/060918-elephants-chili.html|archive-date=29 October 2013}}

Birds do not have the same sensitivity to capsaicin as mammals, as they lack a specific pain receptor. Chili peppers are eaten by birds living in the chili peppers' natural range, possibly contributing to seed dispersal and evolution of the protective capsaicin in chili peppers, as a bird in flight can spread the seeds further away from the parent plant after they pass through its digestive system than any land or tree dwelling mammal could do so under the same circumstances, thus reducing competition for resources.{{cite journal | vauthors=Tewksbury JJ, Nabhan GP | title=Seed dispersal. Directed deterrence by capsaicin in chilies | journal=Nature | volume=412 | issue=6845 | pages=403–404 | date=July 2001 | pmid=11473305 | doi=10.1038/35086653 | bibcode=2001Natur.412..403T | s2cid=4389051 }}

The English word is {{etymology|nci|{{wikt-lang|nci|chīlli}}|}} with the same meaning.{{cite web |title=chili (n.) |url=https://www.etymonline.com/word/chili |publisher=Online Etymology Dictionary |access-date=11 October 2024}} The name of the plant is unrelated to that of the country Chile. While pepper originally meant the genus Piper, not Capsicum, the Oxford English Dictionary and Merriam-Webster record both usages.{{Cite dictionary |title=Pepper |dictionary=Oxford English Dictionary |year=1913 |url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.99996/page/n949/mode/1up |access-date=2021-07-19 |location=Oxford, UK |publisher=Clarendon Press |edition=1 Corrected re-issue |volume=7 N–Poy |page=663}} (sense 2b of pepper){{Cite Merriam-Webster|pepper|access-date=2021-07-21}}

The three primary spellings are chili, chile and chilli, all recognized by dictionaries.

• Chili is widely used in English of the United States{{Cite Merriam-Webster|Chili|access-date=2021-07-21}} and optionally in Canada.The Canadian Oxford Dictionary lists chili as the main entry.
• Chile is the most common Spanish spelling in Mexico and several other Latin American countries,{{cite book |vauthors=Heiser C |title=Seed To Civilization: The Story of Food |publisher=Cambridge: Harvard University Press |date=August 1990 |isbn=978-0-674-79681-2 }} and some parts of the United States.{{Cite Merriam-Webster|chile|access-date=2021-07-21}}
• Chilli was the original Romanization of the Náhuatl language word for the fruit (chīlli), and is the preferred British spelling according to the Oxford English Dictionary.{{Cite dictionary |title=Chilli, chilly |dictionary=Oxford English Dictionary |year=1933 |url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.271839/page/n349/mode/1up |access-date=2021-07-19 |location=Oxford, UK |publisher=Clarendon Press |edition=1 Corrected re-issue |volume=2 C |page=346 }} Chilli (and its plural chillies) is the most common spelling in former British colonies such as IndiaUsage example: {{cite news|url=http://www.thehindubusinessline.com/industry-and-economy/agri-biz/article2872144.ece |title=Fall in exports crushes chilli prices in Guntur |publisher=Thehindubusinessline.com |access-date=21 April 2012}} and Sri Lanka.Usage example: {{cite web|url=http://sundaytimes.lk/100314/Magazine/sundaytimesmagazine_06.html |title=Chilli, Capsicum and Pepper are spicy plants grown for the pod. Green chilli is a culinary requirement in any Sri Lankan household |work=The Sunday Times |access-date=21 April 2012}}

The volatile oil in chili peppers may cause skin irritation, requiring hand washing and care when touching the eyes or any sensitive body parts.{{cite web |url=https://www.bhg.com/recipes/how-to/cooking-techniques/handling-hot-peppers/ |title=How to Handle Hot Peppers and Chiles Safely |publisher=Better Homes and Gardens |vauthors=Beck A |date=8 May 2019 |access-date=23 July 2022}} Consuming hot peppers may cause stomach pain, hyperventilation, sweating, vomiting, and symptoms possibly requiring hospitalization.{{Cite book |title=Goldfrank's Toxicologic Emergencies |veditors=Goldfrank LR |page=1167 |publisher=McGraw-Hill |location=New York, New York |isbn=978-0-07-144310-4 |date=23 March 2007 }}

Unscrupulous traders have illegally added at least eight different synthetic dyes, including Auramine O, Chrysoidine, Sudan stains I to IV, Para red, and Rhodamine B to chili products. All these chemicals are harmful. They can be detected by liquid chromatography used together with mass spectrometry.{{cite journal |vauthors=((Li J, Ding X-M, Liu D-D, Guo F, Chen Y, Zhang Y-B, Liu H-M)) |title=Simultaneous determination of eight illegal dyes in chili products by liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry |journal=Journal of Chromatography B |volume=942-943 |year=2013 |doi=10.1016/j.jchromb.2013.10.010 |pages=46–52 |pmid=24212142 }}

File:Capsicum -Chili - Peperoncino - Il Viagra Calabrese - Calabria - Italy - July 17th 2013 - 02.jpg chilies in Italy, advertised as an aphrodisiac{{efn|The sign says in Italian "Calabrian Viagra".}} ]]

The 16th century Spanish missionary and naturalist José de Acosta noted the supposed aphrodisiac power of chilies, but wrote that they were harmful to people's spiritual health. In the 1970s, the government of Peru forbade prison inmates to consume chilies, their explanation being that these were "not appropriate for men forced to live a limited lifestyle."{{cite journal |vauthors=Hospodar M |title=Aphrodisiac Foods: Bringing Heaven to Earth |journal=Gastronomica |date=2004 |volume=4 |issue=4 |pages=82–93 |doi=10.1525/gfc.2004.4.4.82 |jstor=10.1525/gfc.2004.4.4.82}}

{{Div col|colwidth=30em}}

• Food and drink prohibitions – which in some cultures includes chili peppers
• Hatch, New Mexico – known as the "Chile Capital of the World"
• History of chocolate – which the Maya drank with ground chili peppers
• International Connoisseurs of Green and Red Chile – organization for the promotion of chili peppers
• Peppersoup
• Salsa (sauce)
• Sweet chili sauce – a condiment for adding a sweet, mild heat taste to food

{{Div col end}}

{{notelist}}

{{reflist}}

{{Wiktionary|chili}}

{{Cookbook|Chilli Pepper}}

{{Commons}}

• [https://web.archive.org/web/20050220140720/http://www.plantcultures.org/plants/chilli_pepper_landing.html Plant Cultures: Chilli pepper botany, history and uses]
• [https://web.archive.org/web/20161120165150/http://www.chilepepperinstitute.org/ The Chile Pepper Institute of New Mexico State University]
• [http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/proceedings1996/V3-479.html Capsicums: Innovative Uses of an Ancient Crop]
• [https://web.archive.org/web/20121114184110/http://www.ejournal.unam.mx/cns/no69/CNS06908.pdf Chilli: La especia del Nuevo Mundo] (Article from Germán Octavio López Riquelme about biology, nutrition, culture and medical topics. In Spanish)
• [http://www.pepperscale.com/hot-pepper-list/ The Hot Pepper List] List of chili pepper varieties ordered by heat rating in Scoville Heat Units (SHU)

{{Chili peppers}}

{{Capsicum cultivars}}

{{Herbs & spices}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Chili Pepper}}

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