cobot

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The International Federation of Robotics (IFR),ifr.org a global industry association of robot manufacturers and national robot associations, recognizes two main groups of robots: industrial robots used in automation and service robots for domestic and professional use. Service robots could be considered to be cobots as they are intended to work alongside humans. Industrial robots have traditionally worked separately from humans behind fences or other protective barriers, but cobots remove that separation.

As COBOTS operates safely and efficiently in a shared environment with humans, their versatility allows them to support a wide range of tasks in different settings, and their applications have also expanded rapidly in both public and industrial fields.{{Cite journal |last1=Moor |first1=Madis |last2=Sarkans |first2=Martinš |last3=Kangru |first3=Tavo |last4=Otto |first4=Tauno |last5=Riives |first5=Jüri |date=2024-06-19 |title=AI Functionalities in Cobot-Based Manufacturing for Performance Improvement in Quality Control Application |url=http://jmacheng.not.pl/AI-Functionalities-in-Cobot-Based-Manufacturing-for-Performance-Improvement-in-Quality,189169,0,2.html |journal=Journal of Machine Engineering |volume=24 |issue=2 |pages=44–55 |doi=10.36897/jme/189169 |issn=1895-7595|doi-access=free }} Cobots can have many uses, from information robots in public spaces (an example of service robots),{{Cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=W-RKAjP1DtA.|title = OSHbots from Lowe's Innovation Labs|website = YouTube| date=15 December 2014 }} logistics robots that transport materials within a building,{{Cite web|url=http://www.aethon.com/tug/tughealthcare/|title = Mobile Robots for Healthcare - Pharmacy, Laboratory, Nutrition and EVS}} to industrial robots that help automate unergonomic tasks such as helping people moving heavy parts, or machine feeding or assembly operations.

The IFR defines four levels of collaboration between industrial robots and human workers:{{Cite web |url=https://ifr.org/downloads/papers/IFR_Demystifying_Collaborative_Robots.pdf |title=Archived copy |access-date=2019-08-23 |archive-date=2019-08-23 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190823143255/https://ifr.org/downloads/papers/IFR_Demystifying_Collaborative_Robots.pdf |url-status=dead }}

• Coexistence: Human and robot work alongside each other without a fence, but with no shared workspace.
• Sequential Collaboration: Human and robot are active in shared workspace but their motions are sequential; they do not work on a part at the same time.
• Cooperation: Robot and human work on the same part at the same time, with both in motion.
• Responsive Collaboration: The robot responds in real-time to movement of the human worker.

In most industrial applications of cobots today, the cobot and human worker share the same space but complete tasks independently or sequentially (Co-existence or Sequential Collaboration.) Co-operation or Responsive Collaboration are presently less common.

Cobots were invented in 1996 by J. Edward Colgate and Michael Peshkin,{{cite web |url=https://peshkin.mech.northwestern.edu/cobot/chitrib/jonvan.html |title=Mechanical Advantage - Two Northwestern University engineers are developing cobots -- machines that, unlike robots, cooperate with workers without displacing them |work=Chicago Tribune |date=December 11, 1996}} professors at Northwestern University. Their United States patent entitled, "Cobots"[https://patents.google.com/patent/US5952796 "Cobots"] US Patent 5,952,796, filed 1997 describes "an apparatus and method for direct physical interaction between a person and a general purpose manipulator controlled by a computer."

The invention resulted from a 1994 General Motors initiative led by Prasad Akella of the GM Robotics Center and a 1995 General Motors Foundation research grant intended to find a way to make robots or robot-like equipment safe enough to team with people.{{cite news |url=http://www.industryweek.com/automation/here-come-cobots |title=Here Come the Cobots! |work=Industry Week |date=December 21, 2004 |first=John |last=Teresko}} The theoretical foundations for compliant robots which can monitor and detect forces applied to their kinematic structure and hence can detect collisions or be hand-guided by humans, have been laid in the mid 1980-ies by Oussama Khatib at Stanford University{{Cite book |last1=Khatib |first1=O. |last2=Burdick |first2=J. |chapter=Motion and force control of robot manipulators |date=1986 |title=Proceedings. 1986 IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Automation |chapter-url=https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/1087493 |publisher=IEEE |pages=1381–1386 |doi=10.1109/ROBOT.1986.1087493}} and further refined by Gerd Hirzinger and his team at German Aerospace Center (DLR).{{Cite book |last1=Gombert |first1=B. |last2=Hirzinger |first2=G. |last3=Plank |first3=G. |last4=Schedl |first4=M. |chapter=Modular concepts for a new generation of light weight robots |date=1994 |title=Proceedings of IECON'94 - 20th Annual Conference of IEEE Industrial Electronics |chapter-url=https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/398038 |publisher=IEEE |volume=3 |pages=1507–1514 |doi=10.1109/IECON.1994.398038 |isbn=978-0-7803-1328-6}}

The first cobots assured human safety by having no internal source of motive power.{{Cite web |last=Hand |first=Sophie |date=2020-02-26 |title=A Brief History of Collaborative Robots |url=https://www.mhlnews.com/technology-automation/article/21124077/a-brief-history-of-collaborative-robots |access-date=2022-05-13 |website=www.mhlnews.com}} Instead, motive power was provided by the human worker.{{cite journal |url=https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/954751 |title=Cobot architecture |journal=IEEE Transactions on Robotics and Automation |volume=17 |issue=4 |year=2001 |doi=10.1109/70.954751 |last1=Peshkin |first1=M.A. |last2=Colgate |first2=J.E. |last3=Wannasuphoprasit |first3=W. |last4=Moore |first4=C.A. |last5=Gillespie |first5=R.B. |last6=Akella |first6=P. |pages=377–390 |s2cid=13335845 |access-date=16 October 2021 |archive-date=2 June 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200602134322/https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/954751/ |url-status=dead |url-access=subscription }}

The cobot's function was to allow computer control of motion, by redirecting or steering a payload, in a cooperative way with the human worker.

Later, cobots provided limited amounts of motive power as well.[http://www.engineering.com/AdvancedManufacturing/ArticleID/13540/A-History-of-Collaborative-Robots-From-Intelligent-Lift-Assists-to-Cobots.aspx "A History of Collaborative Robots: From Intelligent Lift Assists to Cobots"] Engineering.com, October 28, 2016 General Motors and an industry working group used the term Intelligent Assist Device (IAD) as an alternative to cobot, which was viewed as too closely associated with the company Cobotics. At the time, the market demand for Intelligent Assist Devices and the safety standard "T15.1 Intelligent Assist Devices - Personnel Safety Requirements"Published March 2002 by the Robotic Industries Association was to improve industrial material handling and automotive assembly operations.[https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp/stamp.jsp?tp=&arnumber=770061 "Cobots for the automobile assembly line"] International Conference on Robotics and Automation, Detroit, MI, 1999, pp. 728-733

Cobotics, a company founded in 1997 by Colgate and Peshkin, produced several cobot models used in automobile final assembly.{{cite web|url=http://toolsmith.ws/catalogs/Stanley%20Assembly%20Tools/Intelligent%20Assist%20Devices.pdf|title=Intelligent Assist Devices: Revolutionary Technology for Material Handling|access-date=2016-05-29|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170105213424/http://toolsmith.ws/catalogs/Stanley%20Assembly%20Tools/Intelligent%20Assist%20Devices.pdf|archive-date=2017-01-05|url-status=dead}} These cobots were of IFR type Responsive Collaboration using what is now called "Hand Guided Control". The company was acquired in 2003 by Stanley Assembly Technologies.{{cite web |url=https://www.cranestodaymagazine.com/news/stanley-moves-into-materials-handling-with-cobotics-acquisition/ |title=Stanley moves into materials handling with Cobotics acquisition |work=Cranes Today |date=April 2, 2003}}

KUKA released its first cobot, LBR 3, in 2004. This computer-controlled lightweight robot was the result of a long collaboration with the German Aerospace Center institute.{{Cite web |url=http://www.dlr.de/rmc/rm/en/desktopdefault.aspx/tabid-3803/6175_read-8963/ |title=DLR Light-Weight Robot III |access-date=2016-09-16 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161114224427/http://www.dlr.de/rmc/rm/en/desktopdefault.aspx/tabid-3803/6175_read-8963 |archive-date=2016-11-14 |url-status=dead }} KUKA further refined the technology, releasing the KUKA LBR 4 in 2008 and the KUKA LBR iiwa in 2013.{{cite web|url=http://www.dlr.de/rm/en/desktopdefault.aspx/tabid-12464/21732_read-44586/ |title=History of the DLR LWR |date=2018-03-17 }} In 2022, the portfolio was extended by the KUKA LBR iisy product family offering smaller cobots that claim to focus on ease of use.{{Cite web |title=New models in the LBR iisy cobot series |url=https://www.kuka.com/en-de/company/press/news/2022/06/lbr-iisy-cobot-robot |access-date=2025-05-19 |website=KUKA AG |language=en-DE}}

Universal Robots released its first cobot, the UR5, in 2008.[https://www.mhlnews.com/technology-automation/article/21124077/a-brief-history-of-collaborative-robots "A Brief History of Collaborative Robots"] MHLnews.com, February 26, 2020 This cobot could safely operate alongside employees, eliminating the need for safety caging or fencing. The new robot helped launch the era of flexible, user-friendly and cost-efficient collaborative robots. In 2012, Universal Robots released the UR10 cobot,{{cite web|url=https://www.universal-robots.com/products/ur10e/|title=UR10e Collaborative industrial robotic arm - Payload up to 10 kg|website=www.universal-robots.com}} and in 2015 they released the smaller, lower payload UR3.

Rethink Robotics released an industrial cobot, Baxter, in 2012[https://www.sae.org/publications/technical-papers/content/2016-01-0334/ "Baxter Kinematic Modeling, Validation and Reconfigurable Representation"] SAE Technical Paper 2016-01-0334, 2016 and smaller, faster collaborative robot [https://rethinkrobotics.com/about-us/ Sawyer] in 2015, designed for high precision tasks.{{Cite magazine |date=2015-03-19 |title=Meet Sawyer, an Unbelievably Cool New Robot With a Face |url=https://time.com/3749307/rethink-robotics-sawyer-robot/ |access-date=2024-04-26 |magazine=TIME |language=en}}

From 2009 to 2013, four CoBot robots, which were designed, built, and programmed by the CORAL research group at Carnegie Mellon University, logged more than 130 kilometers of autonomous in-building errand travel.{{cite journal |url=https://dl.acm.org/doi/10.1177/0278364913503892 |title=Localization and Navigation of the CoBots Over Long-term Deployments |journal=International Journal of Robotics Research |volume=32 |issue=14 |year=2013|doi=10.1177/0278364913503892 |last1=Biswas |first1=Joydeep |last2=Veloso |first2=Manuela M. |pages=1679–1694 |s2cid=2152887 }}

FANUC{{Cite web|url=https://www.businesswire.com/news/home/20151221005788/en/FANUC-Announces-Record-Breaking-400000-Robots-Sold-Worldwide|title=FANUC Announces Record-Breaking 400,000 Robots Sold Worldwide|website=BusinessWire|access-date=2025-01-21}} released its first [https://www.fanucamerica.com/products/robots/series/collaborative-robot/cr-35ib collaborative robot] in 2015 - the FANUC CR-35iA (renamed the CR-35iB in 2022){{Cite web |title=CR-35iB |url=https://www.fanucamerica.com/docs/default-source/robotics-files/cr-35ib-data-sheet.pdf}} with a heavy 35 kg payload.{{Cite web|url=https://www.fanucamerica.com/cmsmedia/PR/FANUC-Collaborative-Robot_54.pdf|title=FANUC America Introduces New CR-35iA Collaborative Robot Designed to Work Alongside Humans|website=FANUC America Corporation|access-date=2025-01-21}} Since that time FANUC has released a smaller line of collaborative robots including the FANUC CR-4iA, CR-7iA and the CR-7/L long arm version, and also a full line of standard cobots including the CRX-5iA, CRX-10iA, CRX-10iA/L, CRX-20iA, CRX-20iA/L, CRX-25iA, and CRX-30iA. They're also the first company in the world to have the first explosion-proof rated cobot, used in painting applications and other hazardous environments like loading munitions or working in areas needing ex-proof rated equipment.{{Cite web |title=FANUC Robot |url=https://www.fanucamerica.com/cmsmedia/datasheets/Compact%20CR%20line%20up%20product%20information_251.pdf}}{{Cite web |title=FANUC CRX Cobots |url=https://crx.fanucamerica.com/}}

ABB released YuMi in 2015,{{Cite web|url=https://new.abb.com/products/robotics/home/about-us/historical-milestones|title=ABB Historical milestones|access-date=2019-08-29|archive-date=2016-03-25|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160325144458/https://new.abb.com/products/robotics/home/about-us/historical-milestones|url-status=dead}} the first collaborative dual arm robot. In February 2021 they released GoFa,{{Cite web|url=https://new.abb.com/news/detail/74323/prsrl-abb-launches-gofa-higher-payload-cobot-for-collaborative-tasks-up-to-5kg|title=GoFa™ CRB 15000 Go far with your new helping hand|website=Global ABB Group|access-date=26 November 2021}} which had a payload of 5 kg.

Dobot Robotics released its CRA series in 2023,{{Cite web |last=Staff |first=Cobot Trends |date=2023-09-26 |title=Dobot opens US office, launches CRA cobot series |url=https://www.cobottrends.com/dobot-opens-us-office-launches-cra-cobot-series/ |access-date=2024-11-13 |website=Collaborative Robotics Trends |language=en-US}} the new generation of collaborative robots. Dobot's Exclusive SafeSkin Technology launched in 2019 enables the safe human-robot collaboration in real-world applications.

As of 2019, Universal Robots was the market leader followed by Techman Robot Inc.{{cite web |last1=Huang |first1=Elaine |title=This Made-in-Taiwan Robot Is Drawing International Attention |url=https://english.cw.com.tw/article/article.action?id=2436 |website=english.cw.com.tw |publisher=CommonWealth |accessdate=8 July 2020}} Techman Robot Inc. is a cobot manufacturer founded by Quanta in 2016. It is based in Taoyuan's Hwa Ya Technology Park.

In 2020, the market for industrial cobots had an annual growth rate of 50 percent.

In 2022, Collaborative Robotics ([https://Co.bot co.bot]) was founded by Brad Porter, former VP and Distinguished Engineer, Robotics at Amazon.{{Cite web |title=Former Amazon Robotics VP Brad Porter goes Collaborative|url=https://techcrunch.com/2022/06/14/former-amazon-robotics-vp-brad-porter-goes-collaborative/ |access-date=2024-03-21 |website=TechCrunch |date=14 June 2022 |language=en}}

In 2023, Collaborative Robotics raised a $30M Series A to begin fielding and manufacturing their novel cobot.{{Cite web |title=Collaborative Robotics raises $30M to develop and deploy 'novel cobot'|url=https://techcrunch.com/2023/07/26/collaborative-robotics-raises-30m-to-develop-and-deploy-novel-cobot/ |access-date=2024-03-21 |website=TechCrunch |date=26 July 2023 |language=en}}

In 2023, Gautam Siwach and Cheryl Li showcase transformative applications of Natural Language Processing for improving communication between humans and collaborative robots (UR3e).{{Cite book |last1=Siwach |first1=Gautam |last2=Li |first2=Cheryl |chapter=Enhancing Human Cobot Interaction using Natural Language Processing |date=2023-12-12 |title=2023 IEEE 4th International Multidisciplinary Conference on Engineering Technology (IMCET) |chapter-url=https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/10368263 |publisher=IEEE |pages=21–26 |doi=10.1109/IMCET59736.2023.10368263 |isbn=979-8-3503-1382-6|s2cid=266600549 }}

In 2025, Almond AI ([https://almondbot.com almondbot.com]) announced their AI-powered cobot Almond Bot.{{Cite web |title=Almond - AI-powered robots for manufacturing automation|url=https://www.ycombinator.com/launches/NQB-almond-ai-powered-robots-for-manufacturing-automation |access-date=2025-05-02 |website=ycombinator |date=4 May 2025 |language=en}}

Major Cobot Manufacturers:

• {{Flagicon|JPN}} FANUC
• {{Flagicon|SWI}}{{Flagicon|Netherlands}} ABB
• {{Flagicon|KOR}} Doosan Robotics
• {{Flagicon|DEN}} Universal Robots

RIA BSR/T15.1, a draft safety standard for Intelligent Assist Devices, was published by the Robotic Industries Association, an industry working group in March 2002.Robotic Industries Association, BSR/T15.1 March 2020

The robot safety standard (ANSI/RIA R15.06 was first published in 1986, after 4 years of development. It was updated with newer editions in 1992 and 1999. In 2011, ANSI/RIA R15.06 was updated again and is now a national adoption of the combined ISO 10218-1 and ISO 10218-2 safety standards. The ISO standards are based on ANSI/RIA R15.06-1999. A companion document was developed by ISO TC299 WG3 and published as an ISO Technical Specification, ISO/TS 15066:2016. This Technical Specification covers collaborative robotics - requirements of robots and the integrated applications.{{cite web|url=http://www.iso.org/iso/catalogue_detail?csnumber=62996|title=ISO/TS 15066:2016 - Robots and robotic devices -- Collaborative robots|website=www.iso.org}} ISO 10218-1 ISO 10218-1:2011 Robots and robotic devices – Safety requirements for industrial robots – Part 1: Robots. International Organization for Standardization (ISO) contains the requirements for robots - including those with optional capabilities to enable collaborative applications. ISO 10218-2:2011 ISO 10218-2:2011 Robots and robotic devices – Safety requirements for industrial robots – Part 2: Robot systems and integration. International Organization for Standardization (ISO) and ISO/TS 15066ISO/TS 15066:2016 Robots and robotic devices – Collaborative robots. International Organization for Standardization (ISO) contain the safety requirements for both collaborative and non-collaborative robot applications. Technically, the robot application includes the robot, end-effector (mounted to the robot arm or manipulator to perform tasks which can include manipulating or handling objects) and the workpiece (if an object is handled).

The safety of a collaborative robot application is the issue since there is NO official term of "cobot" (within robot standardization). Cobot is considered to be a sales or marketing term because "collaborative" is determined by the application. For example, a robot wielding a cutting tool or a sharp workpiece would be hazardous to people. However the same robot sorting foam chips would likely be safe. Consequently, the risk assessment accomplished by the robot integrator addresses the intended application (use). ISO 10218 Parts 1 and 2 rely on risk assessment (according to ISO 12100). In Europe, the Machinery Directive is applicable, however the robot by itself is a partial machine. The robot system (robot with end-effector) and the robot application are considered complete machines.Machinery DirectiveGuide to the Machinery Directive

• Air-Cobot, a collaborative mobile robot to inspect aircraft
• Automated guided vehicle

{{reflist|2}}

• Institute for Occupational Safety and Health of the German Social Accident Insurance (IFA), [http://www.dguv.de/ifa%3B/fachinfos/kollaborierende-roboter/index-2.jsp Safe co-operation between human beings and robots]
• CORAL project's [http://www.cs.cmu.edu/~coral/projects/cobot/ CoBot web page] at the Carnegie Mellon School of Computer Science
• [https://optimo.ee/products/screwdrivers/ Cobot screwdrivers]