consolation

The desire to console others is an expression of empathy, and appears to be instinctual in primates. Dutch primatologist Frans de Waal has observed acts of consolation occurring among non-human primates such as chimpanzees.Frans de Waal, The Age of Empathy: Nature's Lessons for a Kinder Society (2009), p. 194. The formal concept of consolation as a social practice has existed since ancient times. For example, as an examination of letters from ancient Rome indicates of that culture:

{{blockquote|To console the bereaved was an important responsibility. The person offering consolation and the bereaved person were both expected to behave in certain ways and to say certain things, and the consoler to provide support of both an emotional and practical kind.Valerie M. Hope, Death in Ancient Rome: A Sourcebook (2007), p. 200-201.}}

Although "the most frequent occasion for consolation was death", ancient consolation literature addressed other causes for consolation, including "exile, poverty, political failure, illness, shipwreck, and old age".Michael Gagarin, The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Greece and Rome, Volume 1 (2010), p. 281. Papyrus letters from that era "often employ standard consolations, such as 'death is common to all' and frequently mention the dispatch of food stuffs". It is noted that food may have been offered as a further consolation to the bereaved, or may have had a religious purpose. It is reported that in the Fifth Century BCE, the Sophist, Antiphon, set up a booth in a public agora where he offered consolation to the bereaved. Furthermore, "[v]isits of consolation in antiquity extended to popular levels as well", including visits by philosophers intended to hearten villages that were facing invasion.Abraham Smith, Comfort One Another: Reconstructing the Rhetoric and Audience of 1 Thessalonians (1995), p. 48.

In both ancient Greece and Rome, the Consolatio or consolatory oration was a type of ceremonial oration, typically used rhetorically to comfort mourners at funerals. It became one of the most popular classical rhetoric topics.Ernst Robert Curtius, European Literature and the Latin Middle Ages, trans. W.R. Trask (Princeton: 1953) section 5.1 Topics of Consolatory Oratory pp.80-2.Petrie, Graham (1970) "[https://www.jstor.org/pss/3723527 A Rhetorical Topic in 'Tristram Shandy' "], Modern Language Review, Vol. 65, No. 2, April 1970, p. 262. The Platonist philosopher Crantor of Soli (c. 325–c. 275 BC), a member of Plato's Academy, pioneered the writing of essays in this distinct tradition. Although only fragments of his essays have survived, his influence is noted in the works of later writers, particularly Cicero's Tusculan Disputations and Plutarch's Consolation to Apollonius.Baltussen, Han. "Personal grief and public mourning in Plutarch's consolation to his wife", American Journal of Philology 130 (2009): 67-67. July-Aug. 2009. :" Introduction: Beginnings of consolation." Seneca the Younger (4 BC–65 AD) produced the most recognizable examples of Consolatio in his three Consolations, Ad Marciam, Ad Polybium, and Ad Helviam Matrem. The most recognizable example of Consolatio in verse form is the pseudo-Ovidian Consolatio ad Liviam.Scourfield, J. H. D. [https://books.google.com/books?id=ouB8mQmvB8gC&dq Consoling Heliodorus: a commentary on Jerome], Letter 60. N.p.:Oxford UP, 1993. Google Books. Web. 19 July 2009. pp. 15–22. Plutarch's works include three works constructed in the Consolatio tradition: De exilio, Consolatio ad uxorem, Consolatio ad Apollonium.

Historically and philosophically, consolation plays an important symbolic role in the sixth century work, On the Consolation of Philosophy. The author, Boethius, describes himself as being consoled by "Lady Philosophy" (a personification of philosophy) after having been sentenced to death for alleged crimes against the state.John Marenbon, The Cambridge Companion to Boethius (2009), p. 308. Taken literally, Boethius consoles himself for the anguish of knowing that his death has been decreed by philosophizing.

Consolation is also a classical theme in the arts.Karen E. Smythe, Figuring Grief: Gallant, Munro, and the Poetics of Elegy (1992).{{rp|8}} The poetic form of elegy, for example, has been described as "a verbal presentation or staging of emotion, wherein the detached speaker engages the audience with the intent of achieving some form of cathartic consolation".{{rp|3}} Examples of literary devices which may be used to provide consolation include prosopopoeia, wherein an author or speaker may provide a representation of the ongoing thoughts or opinions of a deceased person.{{rp|79}}

Religious figures are often depicted as offering consolation to their followers during times of grief. For example, in the Mahabharata, the Hindu avatar Krishna consoles his brother Balarama and the princess Sathya Bama after they have been humiliated for their prideful ways.M. Padmanabhan, Meera Ravi Shankar, Tales of Krishna from Mahabharatha (2004), p. 46. More famously, in the Bhagavad Gita, when Arjuna learned that Krishna was dying of an injury, Krishna consoled him with touching philosophy.Hullasa Behera, 50 Flowers From Bhagavad Gita (1998), p. 17. In Christianity, one of the iconic Stations of the Cross recalls that "Jesus console[d] the daughters of Jerusalem".Ján Majerník, Joseph Ponessa, Laurie Watson Manhardt, The Synoptics: On the Gospels of Matthew, Mark, Luke (2005), p. 188. A substantial body of Christian literature exists exhorting followers to take consolation in their faith for the various ills that befall them in life. One branch of Christianity, Catharism, practiced a sacrament called consolamentum, which required consolation for the inevitable regret of living in order to move nearer to God or to approach heaven.{{cite book|title=Montaillou: The Promised Land of Error |author=Emmanuel Le Roy Ladurie|publisher=Random House/editions Gilmard|year=1975|isbn=978-0-8076-1598-0}}

There is a tradition within the Catholic church whereby believers, in their mystical union with Jesus Christ, seek to provide consolation to Jesus in recognition of his sufferings endured on their behalf. This tradition is referenced in the writings of Pope Pius XI and Pope Francis.Pope Pius XI, Miserentissimus Redemptor, 8 May 1928 Francis invokes and supports this tradition, asking "If we truly love the Lord, how could we not desire to console him?".Pope Francis, [https://www.vatican.va/content/francesco/en/encyclicals/documents/20241024-enciclica-dilexit-nos.pdf Dilexit nos], paragraph 152, published on 24 October 2024, accessed on 25 February 2025

In some kinds of competitions, losing competitors receive some form of award or recognition as a consolation for their loss. This may come in the form of a consolation prize given to a runner-up, or a consolation match in a sports tournament, wherein the top two teams compete for first and second place, while the next two teams compete for the prize of the third-place finish.

An example of this occurs in the Iliad, where Homer writes of an incident where Achilles is judging sporting contests being held among the Greeks during the funeral of Patroclus. During a chariot race, Eumelus, who is known to be a great chariot driver, has a crash that causes him to come in last. Achilles expresses a desire to give Eumeles the second-place prize, a consolation prize in recognition of the losing participant's merit as a charioteer. This effort to award a consolation prize is thwarted by the actual second-place participant, Antilochus who successfully objects that the prize should go to the competitor whose performance met the requirements of winning the prize.David Potter, The Victor's Crown: A History of Ancient Sport from Homer to Byzantium (2011), p. 28-29.

• Comfort
• Grief
• Lament
• Mourning
• condolences
• Shiva (Judaism)

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Category:Interpersonal relationships