crisis of the late Middle Ages

The expression "crisis of the late Middle Ages" is commonly used in western historiography, especially in English and German, and somewhat less in other western European scholarship, to refer to the array of crises besetting Europe in the 14th and 15th centuries. The expression often carries a modifier to specify it, such as the urban{{thin space}}{{sfn|Phythian-Adams|2002}} crisis of the late Middle Ages, or the cultural,{{sfn|Merrill|1987}} monastic,{{sfn|Merton|1999|p=188}} religious,{{sfn|Borst|1992|p=167}} social,{{sfn|Borst|1992|p=167}} economic,{{sfn|Borst|1992|p=167}} intellectual,{{sfn|Borst|1992|p=167}} or agrarian crisis, or a regional modifier, such as the Catalan{{cite book |last1=Ferrer i Mallol |first1=Maria Teresa |last2=Mutgé i Vives|first2=Josefa |title=La corona catalanoaragonesa i el seu entorn mediterrani a la baixa edat mitjana: actes del seminari celebrat a Barcelona, els dies 27 i 28 de novembre de 2003 |trans-title=The Catalan-Aragonese Crown and its Mediterranean Environment in the Late Middle Ages: Acts of the Seminar held in Barcelona, November 27 and 28, 2003 |series=Anuario de Estudios medievales, Annex 58 |year=2005 |publisher=Editorial CSIC - CSIC Press |location=Barcelona |language=ca |isbn=978-84-00-08330-4 |page=1 |oclc=878594930 |type=conference pub. }} or French{{citation |title=The Crises of the Late Middle Ages: The Case of France|author=James L. Goldsmith |journal=French History |year=1995|volume=9 |issue=4|pages=417–50|doi=10.1093/fh/9.4.417}} crisis.

By 1929, the French historian Marc Bloch was already writing about the effects of the crisis,{{sfn|Institut d'Estudis Catalans|2013|p=13}}and by mid-century there were academic debates being held about it. In his 1981 article "Late Middle Age Agrarian Crisis or Crisis of Feudalism?", Peter Kriedte reprises some of the early works in the field from historians writing in the 1930s, including Marc Bloch, Henri Pirenne, Wilhelm Abel, and Michael Postan.{{cite journal |journal=Geschichte und Gesellschaft |language=de |last=Kriedte |first=Peter |title=Spätmittelalterliche Agrarkrise Oder Krise Des Feudalismus? |trans-title=Late Middle Age Agrarian Crisis or Crisis of Feudalism? |date=1981 |volume=7 |issue=1 |pages=42–68 |jstor=40185111 }} Kriedte references include: {{blist |Marc Bloch, Les caracteres originaux de l'histoire rurale francaise, Oslo (1931) |Henri Pirenne, Le mouvement économique et social, Paris (1933) |Wilhelm Abel, Bevölkerungsgang u. Landwirtschaft im ausgehenden Mittealter im Lichte der Preis- u. Lohnbewegung (1934) |Michael Postan, The Fifteenth Century, EHR (1938)}} Referring to the crisis in Italy as the "Crisis of the 14th Century", Giovanni Cherubini alluded to the debate that already by 1974 had been going on "for several decades" in French, British, American, and German historiography.{{cite journal |journal=Studi Storici |language=it |last=Cherubini |first=Giovanni |title=La 'Crisi Del Trecento'. Bilancio e Prospettive Di Ricerca |trans-title=The 'Crisis of the Fourteenth Century'. Budget and Research Perspectives |date=1974 |volume=15 |issue=3 |pages=660–670 |jstor=20564172}}

Arno Borst (1992) states that it "is a given that fourteenth century Latin Christianity was in a crisis", goes on to say that the intellectual aspects and how universities were affected by the crisis is underrepresented in the scholarship hitherto ("When we discuss the crisis of the late Middle Ages, we consider intellectual movements beside religious, social, and economic ones"), and gives some examples.{{sfn|Borst|1992|p=167}}

Some question whether "crisis" is the right expression for the period at the end of the Middle Ages and the transition to Modernity. In his 1981 article "The End of the Middle Ages: Decline, Crisis or Transformation?" Donald Sullivan addresses this question, claiming that scholarship has neglected the period and viewed it largely as a precursor to subsequent climactic events such as the Renaissance and Reformation.{{cite journal |journal=The History Teacher |last=Sullivan |first=Donald |title=The End of the Middle Ages: Decline, Crisis, or Transformation? |date=1981 |volume=14 |issue=4 |pages=551–565 |doi= 10.2307/493689|jstor=493689 }}

In his "Introduction to the History of the Middle Ages in Europe", Mitre Fernández wrote in 2004: "To talk about a general crisis of the late Middle Ages is already a commonplace in the study of medieval history."{{cite book |last=Mitre Fernández |first=Emilio |title=Introducción a la historia de la Edad Media europea |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0A7VLCRkpcwC&pg=PA289 |series=Colección fundamentos, 56 |year=2004 |publisher=Ediciones AKAL |location=Madrid |isbn=978-84-7090-479-0 |page=289 |chapter=1 La Crisis Economica y Social de la Baja Edad Media |oclc=819718540 |trans-title=Introduction to the History of the Middle Ages in Europe |orig-year=1st pub. 1976: Istmo |access-date=2 November 2018}}

Heribert Müller, in his 2012 book on the religious crisis of the late Middle Ages, discussed whether the term itself was in crisis:

{{quote|No doubt the thesis of the crisis of the late Middle Ages has itself been in crisis for some time now, and hardly anyone considered an expert in the field would still profess it without some ifs and buts, and especially so in the case of German Medieval historians.{{cite book |last=Müller |first=Heribert |title=Die kirchliche Krise des Spätmittelalters: Schisma, Konziliarismus und Konzilien |trans-title=The Religious Crisis of the Late Middle Ages: Schism, Conciliarism, and Councils |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uR_nBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA1 |series=Encyclopedia of German History, 90 |date=18 September 2012 |publisher=De Gruyter |location=Munich |isbn=978-3-486-71350-3 |page=1 |chapter=1. Einleitung: Krise des Spätmittelalters? – Krise der Kirche |trans-chapter=1. Introduction: Crisis of the late Middle Ages? – Crisis of the Church |oclc=843181757 |access-date=2 November 2018}}}}

In his 2014 historiographical article about the crisis in the Middle Ages, Peter Schuster quotes the historian Léopold Genicot's 1971 article "Crisis: From the Middle Ages to Modern Times": "Crisis is the word which comes immediately to the historian's mind when he thinks of the fourteenth and the fifteenth centuries."{{cite journal |journal=Historische Zeitschrift |language=de |last=Schuster |first= Peter |title=Die Krise des Spätmittelalters: Zur Evidenz eines sozial- und wirtschaftsgeschichtlichen Paradigmas in der Geschichtsschreibung des 20. Jahrhunderts |trans-title=The Crisis of the Late Middle Ages: On the Evidence of a Social- and Economic-historical Paradigm in the Historiography of the 20th century |date=2014-01-01 |volume=269 |issue=1 |pages=19–56 |doi=10.1524/hzhz.1999.269.jg.19 |s2cid=164734921}}

{{main|Medieval demography}}

The Medieval Warm Period ended sometime towards the end of the 13th century. This marked the start of the Little Ice Age,World Regions in Global Context, Third Edition which resulted in harsher winters with reduced harvests. In Northern Europe, new technological innovations such as the heavy plough and the three-field system were not as effective in clearing new fields for harvest as they were in the Mediterranean because the north had poor, clay-like soil.J. M. Bennett and C. W. Hollister, Medieval Europe: A Short History (New York: McGraw-Hill, 2006), p. 326. Food shortages and rapidly inflating prices were a fact of life for as much as a century before the plague. Wheat, oats, hay and consequently livestock were all in short supply.

Their scarcity resulted in malnutrition, which increases susceptibility to infections due to weakened immune systems. In the autumn of 1314, heavy rains began to fall, which were the start of several years of cold and wet winters. The already weak harvests of the north suffered, and a seven-year famine ensued. In the years 1315 to 1317, a catastrophic famine, known as the Great Famine, struck much of North West Europe. It was arguably the worst in European history, perhaps reducing the population by more than 10%.

Most governments instituted measures that prohibited exports of foodstuffs, condemned black market speculators, set price controls on grain and outlawed large-scale fishing. At best, they proved mostly unenforceable and at worst they contributed to a continent-wide downward spiral. The hardest hit lands, like England, were unable to buy grain from France because of the prohibition, and from most of the rest of the grain producers because of crop failures from shortage of labor. Any grain that could be shipped was eventually taken by pirates or looters to be sold on the black market.

Meanwhile, many of the largest countries, most notably England and Scotland, had been at war. This resulted in them using up much of their treasury and creating inflation. In 1337, on the eve of the first wave of the Black Death, England and France went to war in what became known as the Hundred Years' War. This situation was worsened when landowners and monarchs such as Edward III of England (r. 1327–1377) and Philip VI of France (r. 1328–1350), raised the fines and rents of their tenants out of a fear that their comparatively high standard of living would decline.

When a typhoid epidemic emerged, many thousands died in populated urban centres, most significantly Ypres (now in Belgium). In 1318, a pestilence of unknown origin, which some contemporary scholars now identify as anthrax, targeted the animals of Europe. Sheep and cattle were particularly affected, further reducing the food supply and income of the peasantry.{{Cite journal | doi=10.1111/j.1468-0289.2011.00625.x| title=The Great Bovine Pestilence and its economic and environmental consequences in England and Wales, 1318-501| year=2012| last1=Slavin| first1=Philip| journal=The Economic History Review| volume=65| issue=4| pages=1239–1266| s2cid=154241221}}

{{globalize section|date=November 2023}}

As Europe moved out of the Medieval Warm Period and into the Little Ice Age, a decrease in temperature and a great number of devastating floods disrupted harvests and caused mass famine. The cold and the rain proved to be particularly disastrous from 1315 to 1317 in which poor weather interrupted the maturation of many grains and beans, and flooding turned fields rocky and barren.{{Cite journal|last=Lucas|first=Henry S.|date=1930|title=The Great European Famine of 1315, 1316, and 1317 |jstor=2848143 |journal=Speculum |volume=5 |issue=4 |pages=343–377 |doi=10.2307/2848143 |s2cid=161705685}}{{Cite book|title=The Great Famine : Northern Europe in the Early Fourteenth Century|last=Jordan|first=William Chester|publisher=Princeton University Press|year=1997}}{{page needed|date=March 2025}} Scarcity of grain caused price inflation, as described in one account of grain prices in Europe in which the price of wheat doubled from twenty shillings per quarter in 1315 to forty shillings per quarter by June of the following year. Grape harvests also suffered, which reduced wine production throughout Europe. The wine production from the vineyards surrounding the Abbey of Saint-Arnould in France decreased as much as eighty percent by 1317. During this climatic change and subsequent famine, Europe's cattle were struck with The Great Bovine Pestilence, a pathogen of unknown identity.{{Cite journal|last=Slavin|first=Philip|date=2012|title=The Great Bovine Pestilence and its economic and environmental consequences in England and Wales, 1318—50|jstor=23271688|journal=The Economic History Review |volume=65 |issue=4 |pages=1239–1266 |doi=10.1111/j.1468-0289.2011.00625.x |s2cid=154241221}}

The pathogen spread throughout Europe from Eastern Asia in 1315 and reached the British Isles by 1319. Manorial accounts of cattle populations in the year 1319–20 place a 62 percent loss in England and Wales alone. In these countries, some correlation can be found between the places where poor weather reduced crop harvests and places where the bovine population was particularly negatively affected. It is hypothesized that both low temperatures and lack of nutrition lowered the cattle populations' immune systems and made them vulnerable to disease. The mass death and illness of cattle drastically affected dairy production, and the output did not return to its pre-pestilence amount until 1331. Much of the medieval peasants' protein was obtained from dairy, and milk shortages likely caused nutritional deficiency in the European population. Famine and pestilence, exacerbated with the prevalence of war during this time, led to the death of an estimated ten to fifteen percent of Europe's population.{{page needed|date=March 2025}}

The Black Death was a particularly devastating epidemic in Europe during this time, and is notable due to the number of people who succumbed to the disease within the few years the disease was active. It was fatal to an estimated thirty to sixty percent of the population where the disease was present.{{Cite journal|last=DeWitte|first=Sharon|author-link=Sharon N. DeWitte|date=2015|title=Setting the Stage for the Medieval Plague: Pre-Black Death Trends in Survival and Mortality|journal=American Journal of Physical Anthropology|volume=158|issue=3|pages=441–451|doi=10.1002/ajpa.22806|pmid=26174498}} While there is some question of whether it was a particularly deadly strain of Yersinia pestis that caused the Black Death, research indicates no significant difference in bacterial phenotype.{{Cite journal|last1=Bos|first1=Kirsten I.|last2=Schuenemann|first2=Verena J.|last3=Golding|first3=G. Brian|last4=Burbano|first4=Hernán A.|last5=Waglechner|first5=Nicholas|last6=Coombes|first6=Brian K.|last7=McPhee|first7=Joseph B.|last8=DeWitte|first8=Sharon N.|last9=Meyer|first9=Matthias|date=October 2011|title=A draft genome of Yersinia pestis from victims of the Black Death|journal=Nature|language=En|volume=478|issue=7370|pages=506–510|doi=10.1038/nature10549|pmid=21993626|pmc=3690193|bibcode=2011Natur.478..506B|issn=1476-4687}} Thus, environmental stressors are considered when hypothesizing the deadliness of the Black Plague, such as crop failures due to changes in weather, the subsequent famine, and an influx of host rats into Europe from China.{{Cite journal|last1=Cui|first1=Yujun|last2=Yu|first2=Chang|last3=Yan|first3=Yanfeng|last4=Li|first4=Dongfang|last5=Li|first5=Yanjun|last6=Jombart|first6=Thibaut|last7=Weinert|first7=Lucy A.|last8=Wang|first8=Zuyun|last9=Guo|first9=Zhaobiao|date=2013|title=Historical variations in mutation rate in an epidemic pathogen, Yersinia pestis|jstor=42553832|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America|volume=110|issue=2|pages=577–582|doi=10.1073/pnas.1205750110|pmid=23271803|pmc=3545753|bibcode=2013PNAS..110..577C|doi-access=free}}

{{main|Popular revolts in late medieval Europe}}

File:Jean Froissart, Chroniques, 154v, 12148 btv1b8438605hf336, crop.jpg meets the rebels of the Peasants' Revolt of 1381.]]

There were some popular uprisings in Europe before the 14th century, but these were local in scope, for example uprisings at a manor house against an unpleasant overlord. This changed in the 14th and 15th centuries when new downward pressures on the poor{{clarify|date=July 2020}} resulted in mass movements and popular uprisings across Europe. To indicate how common and widespread these movements became, in Germany between 1336 and 1525 there were no less than sixty phases of militant peasant unrest.{{cite book |author=Peter Blickle |title=Unruhen in der ständischen Gesellschaft 1300–1800 |date=1988 }}{{page needed|date=March 2025}}

File:Lenepveu, Jeanne d'Arc au siège d'Orléans.jpg during the Siege of Orléans (1428–1429)]]

Scholars such as David Herlihy and Michael Postan use the term Malthusian limit to explain some calamities as results of overpopulation. In his 1798 Essay on the Principle of Population, Thomas Malthus asserted that exponential population growth will invariably exceed available resources, making mass death inevitable. In his book The Black Death and the Transformation of the West, David Herlihy explores whether the plague was an inevitable crisis of population and resources. In The Black Death; A Turning Point in History? (ed. William M. Bowsky), he "implies that the Black Death's pivotal role in late medieval society... was now being challenged. Arguing on the basis of a neo-Malthusian economics, revisionist historians recast the Black Death as a necessary and long overdue corrective to an overpopulated Europe."{{citation needed|date=February 2023}}

Herlihy also examined the arguments against the Malthusian crisis, stating "if the Black Death was a response to excessive human numbers it should have arrived several decades earlier"{{cite book |last=Herlihy |first=David |title=The Black Death and the Transformation of the West |page=33 |url=http://www.hup.harvard.edu/catalog.php?isbn=9780674076136 |year=1997 |access-date=2 September 2009 |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0-674-07612-9}} in consequence of the population growth before the Black Death. Herlihy also brings up other, biological factors that argue against the plague as a "reckoning" by arguing "the role of famines in affecting population movements is also problematic. The many famines preceding the Black Death, even the 'great hunger' of 1315 to 1317, did not result in any appreciable reduction in population levels". Herlihy concludes the matter stating, "the medieval experience shows us not a Malthusian crisis but a stalemate, in the sense that the community was maintaining at stable levels very large numbers over a lengthy period" and states that the phenomenon should be referred to as more of a deadlock, rather than a crisis, to describe Europe before the epidemics.{{rp|34}}

• A Distant Mirror: The Calamitous 14th Century
• Crisis of the Third Century
• History of science in the Middle Ages
• Renaissance of the 12th century
• The Autumn of the Middle Ages
• The General Crisis

{{Clear}}

{{reflist}}

• {{cite book |last=Abel |first=Wilhelm |title=Schmollers Jahrbuch für Gesetzgebung, Verwaltung und Volkswirtschaft im Deutschen Reiche |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7o08AQAAIAAJ&pg=PA33 |year=1934 |publisher=Duncker & Humblot |location=Berlin |language=de |pages=33–43 |chapter=Bevölkerungsgang u. Landwirtschaft im ausgehenden Mittealter im Lichte der Preis- u. Lohnbewegung |oclc=224602624 |trans-chapter=Population and Agriculture in the late Middle Ages in the light of price and wage fluctuations}}
• {{cite book |last1=Bloch |first1=Marc |author-link1=Marc Bloch |last2=Dauvergne |first2=Robert Marie |title=Les caractères originaux de l'histoire rurale française |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=K2q7AAAAIAAJ |year=1960 |publisher=Armand Colin |language=fr |oclc=925568328 |orig-year=1st pub. Oslo 1931 |ref={{harvid|Bloch|1960}} }}
• {{cite book |last=Merrill |first=Robert |title=Sir Thomas Malory and the Cultural Crisis of the Late Middle Ages |url=https://archive.org/details/sirthomasmaloryc0000merr |url-access=registration |series=American University Studies. Series 4 |year=1987 |publisher=Peter Lang Publishing |location=New York |isbn=978-0-8204-0303-8}}
• {{cite book |last=Merton |first=Thomas |title=Mystics and Zen Masters |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=U7IsdsNzZMwC&pg=PA188 |date=29 November 1999 |publisher=Farrar, Straus and Giroux |location=New York |isbn=978-1-4299-4400-7 |page=188 |oclc=643880738}}
• {{cite book |last=Phythian-Adams |first=Charles |title=Desolation of a City: Coventry and the Urban Crisis of the Late Middle Ages |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rJvNn7uulfYC |series=Past and present publications |date=27 June 2002 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-52500-8 |oclc=49784573 |orig-year=1st pub. 1979}}
• {{cite book |last=Pirenne |first=Henri |title=Histoire Économique Et Sociale Du Moyen Âge |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=N5COAAAAIAAJ |year=1969 |publisher=Presses Univ. de France |location=Paris |language=fr |oclc=1024502195 |orig-year=1st pub. 1933 in Gustave Glotz, ed., Histoire général, vol. 3, Histoire du Moyen-Age (Paris)}}
• {{cite journal |journal=Economic History Review |last=Postan |first=Michael M. |title=Revisions in Economic History: IX.-The Fifteenth Century |date=1939 |volume=9 |issue=2 |pages=160–167 |doi=10.2307/2590221 |jstor=2590221 }}
• {{cite journal |title=The Crises of the Late Middle Ages: The Case of France|author=James L. Goldsmith |journal=French History |year=1995|volume=9 |issue=4|pages=417–50|doi=10.1093/fh/9.4.417}}
• {{cite book |last=Borst |first=Arno |title=Medieval Worlds: Barbarians, Heretics and Artists in the Middle Ages |date=1992 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |isbn=978-0-226-06656-1 |page=167 }}
• {{cite book|author=Institut d'Estudis Catalans |title=Crisis frumentàries, iniciatives privades i polítiques públiques de proveïment a les ciutats catalanes durant la baixa edat mitjana: Coordinació a cura d'Antoni Riera i Melis |trans-title=Crises in grain production, private initiatives and public supply policies to Catalan cities during the Late Middle Ages: Coordination under the care of Antoni Riera i Melis |date= 2013 |publisher=Institut d'Estudis Catalans |location=Barcelona |isbn=978-84-9965-180-4 |page=13 |oclc=870100518}}

• {{cite journal |journal=The Medieval History Journal |last1=Bois |first1=Guy |title=Discussion: On the Crisis of the Late Middle Ages |volume=1 |number=2 |date=October 1998 |pages=311–321 |issn=0971-9458 |doi=10.1177/097194589800100206|s2cid=220680346 }}
• {{cite book |last=Felschow |first=Eva-Marie |title=Wetzlar in der Krise des Spätmittelalters |trans-title=Wetzlar in the Crisis of the Late Middle Ages |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lIcTAQAAMAAJ |year=1985 |publisher=Selbstverl. der Hessischen Historischen Kommission Darmstadt und der Historischen Kommission für Hessen |location=Darmstadt |isbn=9783884431511 |language=de }}
• {{cite book |last1=Garí de Aguilera |first1=Blanca |last2=Hernando Delgado |first2=Josep |last3=Riu Riu |first3=Manuel |title=Història medieval universal |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=J8pH46DxemsC&pg=PA58 |series=Textos docents, 25 |year=2005 |publisher=Edicions Universitat Barcelona |language=ca |isbn=978-84-475-2947-6 |page=58 |chapter=10. Crisi de la Baixa Edat Mitjana |trans-chapter=Crisis of the Late Middle Ages |oclc=432958704 |trans-title=Universal Medieval History |ref={{harvid|Garí|2005}} }}
• {{cite book |last=Heimann |first=Heinz-Dieter |language=de |title=Hausordnung und Staatsbildung: innerdynastische Konflikte als Wirkungsfaktoren der Herrschaftsverfestigung bei den wittelsbachischen Rheinpfalzgrafen und den Herzögen von Bayern : ein Beitrag zum Normenwandel in der Krise des Spätmittelalters |trans-title=House Rules and State Formation: Inner-Dynastic Conflicts as Factors in the Consolidation of Power Among the Wittelsbach Rulers and the Dukes of Bavaria: A Contribution to the Changing Standards in the Crisis of the Late Middle Ages |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LU4jAQAAIAAJ |series=Quellen und Forschungen aus dem Gebiet der Geschichte, n.F., Heft 16. |year=1993 |publisher=Schöningh |location=Paderborn |isbn=978-3-506-73266-8 |oclc=1013358047}}
• {{cite book |last=Maglio |first=Gianfranco |title=L'idea costituzionale nel Medioevo: dalla tradizione antica al 'costituzionalismo cristiano' |trans-title=The Constitutional Idea in the Middle Ages: from Ancient Tradition to 'Christian Constitutionalism' |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tQwhmQEkNPUC&pg=PA163 |series=Fondamenti medievali della civiltà europea, 1 |year=2006 |publisher=Il Segno Gabrielli Editori |location=Verona |language=it |isbn=978-88-88163-80-2 |pages=163 |chapter=4. L'ultimo medioevo |oclc=68909698 |quote=1. Crisi del Trecento e conseguenze sociali e spirituali}}
• {{cite book |last1=Ruggiero |first1=Romano |last2=Comba |first2=Rinaldo |last3=Coulet |first3=Noel |title=La crisi del trecento: tra il medioevo e l'età moderna |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5URxAQAACAAJ |series=La Storia - Corriere della Sera 11 |publisher=RCS MediaGroup-Divisione quotidiani |language=it |date=April 15, 2013 |oclc=955752874 |trans-title=The Crisis of the 14th Century: between the Middle Ages and the Modern Age |ref={{harvid|Ruggiero |2013}} }}
• {{cite book |last1=Seibt |first1=Ferdinand |last2=Eberhard |first2=Winfried |title=Europa 1400 : die Krise des Spätmittelalters |trans-title=Europe 1400: the Crisis of the Late Middle Ages |date=1984 |language=de |location=Stuttgart |publisher=Klett-Cotta |isbn=978-3-608-91210-4 |oclc=185691852 |type=conference pub. |ref={{harvid|Seibt|1984}} }}

• [http://facstaff.bloomu.edu/mhickey/to%201650%20Lecture%2011.htm {{"'}}The Waning of the Middle Ages': Crisis and Recovery, 1300–1450"]—Lecture 11, Western Civilization to 1650 (42.125), M. Hickey, Bloomsburg University of Pennsylvania

{{Middle Ages}}

Category:Demography

Category:Late Middle Ages

Category:Medieval politics

Category:Medieval society