demotic Greek

Demotic Greek differs in a few ways from Ancient Greek and from subsequent learned forms of Greek. Syntactically, it favours parataxis over subordination. It also heavily employs redundancy, such as {{wikt-lang|el|μικρό}} {{wikt-lang|el|κοριτσάκι}} (small little-girl) and {{wikt-lang|el|ξανακοιμήθηκε}} {{wikt-lang|el|πάλι}} (he-went-back-to-sleep again). Demotic also employs the diminutive with great frequency,{{rp |XI}} to the point that many Demotic forms are in effect neuter diminutives of ancient words, especially irregular ones, e.g. {{wikt-lang|el|νησί}} from {{lang|el|νήσιον}} (island) from ancient {{wikt-lang|grc|νῆσος}} (island).

Greek noun declensions underwent considerable alteration, with irregular and less productive forms being gradually regularized (e.g. ancient {{lang|grc|ἀνήρ}} being replaced by {{lang|el|άντρας}} (man)). Another feature is the merging of classical accusative and nominative forms: They are only distinguished in Demotic by their definite articles, which continued to be declined as in Ancient Greek. This was especially common with nouns of the third declension, such as {{wikt-lang|grc|πατρίς}} (hometown, fatherland) which became nominative {{lang|el|η πατρίδα}}, accusative {{lang|el|την πατρίδα}} in Demotic.{{rp|X}}

A result of this regularization of noun forms in Demotic is that most native words end in a vowel, s ({{Lang|el|ς}}), or n ({{lang|el|ν}}). Thus, the set of possible word-final sounds is even more restricted than in Ancient Greek. Exceptions are foreign loans like {{lang|el|μπαρ}} (bar), learned forms {{lang|el|ύδωρ}} (from Ancient Greek {{wikt-lang|grc|ὕδωρ}}, water), and exclamations like {{wikt-lang|el|αχ|αχ!}} (ach!, oh!). Many dialects even append the vowel -e ({{lang|el|ε}}) to third-person verb forms: {{wikt-lang|el|γράφουνε}} instead of {{wikt-lang|el|γράφουν}} (they write). Word-final consonant clusters are also rare, again mainly occurring in learned discourse and via foreign loans: {{wikt-lang|el|άνθραξ}} (coal – scientific) and {{wikt-lang|el|μποξ}} (boxing – sport).{{cite book |author1-link = Peter Mackridge| last1 = Mackridge | first1 = Peter |last2= Philippaki-Warburton|first2=Irene|date=1997|title=Greek: a Comprehensive Grammar of the Modern Language|location=New York |publisher= Routledge|isbn=0-41510002-X}}{{rp |8–9}}

The indirect object is usually expressed by prepending the word {{lang|el|σε}} to the accusative{{rp|X}} {{Clarify span|text=(where Ancient Greek had {{lang|grc|εἰς}} for accusative of motion toward)|date=August 2024}}{{Citation needed|date=August 2024}} or genitive{{rp|X}} (especially with regard to means or instrument).{{Citation needed|date=August 2024}} Bare {{lang|el|σε}} is used without the article to express an indefinite duration of time, or contracted with the definite article for definiteness (especially with regard to place where or motion toward).{{Citation needed|date=August 2024}} {{Clarify span|text=Using one noun with an unmarked accusative article-noun phrase followed by {{lang|el|σε}} contracted with the definite article of a second noun distinguishes between definite direct and indirect objects, whether real or figurative, e.g. «{{lang|el|βάζω το χέρι μου στο ευαγγέλιο}}» or «...{{lang|el|στη φωτιά}}» (lit. I put my hand upon the Gospel or ...in the fire, i.e. I swear it's true, I'm sure of it).|reason=The grammar of this sentence makes it very difficult to follow.|date=August 2024}}{{Citation needed|date=August 2024}} By contrast, Katharevousa continued to employ the older {{lang|el|εἰς}} in place of {{lang|el|σε}}.{{citation needed|date=July 2015}}

The verb system inherited from Ancient Greek gradually evolved. The perfect, pluperfect, future perfect, and past conditional tenses were gradually replaced with conjugated forms of the verb {{lang|el|έχω}} (I have).{{rp|X}} The future tense and the subjunctive and optative moods, and eventually the infinitive, were replaced by the modal/tense auxiliaries {{lang|el|θα}} and {{lang|el|να}}{{Citation needed|date=August 2024|reason=The cited source only mentions θα.}} used with either the simplified or fused future/subjunctive forms.{{rp|X}} In contrast to this, Katharevousa employed older perfective forms and infinitives that had been mostly lost in the spoken language.{{citation needed|date=July 2015}} However, Katharevousa did sometimes employ the same aorist or perfective forms as the spoken language, but preferred an archaizing form of the present indicative, e.g. {{wikt-lang|el|κρύπτω}} for Demotic {{wikt-lang|el|κρύβω}} (I hide), which both have the same aorist form {{lang|el|έκρυψα}}.{{rp|XI}}

Demotic Greek also borrowed a significant number of words from other languages, including Italian and Turkish, something which Katharevousa avoided.{{Citation needed|date=August 2024}}

Demotic is commonly used interchangeably with "Standard Modern Greek" ({{lang|el|Νέα Ελληνικά}}). Nonetheless, these terms are not necessarily synonyms. While today's Standard Modern Greek is fundamentally a continuation of earlier Demotic, it also contains—especially in its written form and formal registers—numerous words, grammatical forms, and phonetical features that did not exist in the most "pure" and consistent forms of Demotic during the period of diglossia in Greece. Due to these admixtures, it could even be described as a product of a "merger" between earlier Demotic and Katharevousa.

Furthermore, in a broader sense, the Greek term {{Lang|el|Δημοτική|italic=yes}} ({{Lang|el-Latn|Dimotikí}}) can also describe any naturally evolved colloquial language of the Greeks, not just that of the period of diglossia.

The following examples are intended to demonstrate Katharevousa features in Modern Greek. They were not present in traditional Demotic and only entered the modern language through Katharevousa (sometimes as neologisms), where they are used mostly in writing (for instance, in newspapers), but also orally, especially words and fixed expressions are both understood and actively used also by non-educated speakers. In some cases, the Demotic form is used for literal or practical meanings, while the Katharevousa is used for figurative or specialized meanings: e.g. {{wikt-lang|el|φτερό}} for the wing or feather of a bird, but {{wikt-lang|el|πτέρυξ}} for the wing of a building or airplane or arm of an organisation.{{rp|180}}{{rp|203}}

• {{wikt-lang|el|ενδιαφέρων}} (interesting)
• {{wikt-lang|el|τουλάχιστον}} (at least)
• {{wikt-lang|el|την}} {{wikt-lang|el|απήγαγε}} (he abducted her){{Clarification needed|reason=Is this a common idiom?|date=August 2024}}
• {{wikt-lang|el|είναι}} {{wikt-lang|el|γεγονός}} {{wikt-lang|el|ότι}} ... (it is a fact that ...)
• {{wikt-lang|el|προς}} {{wikt-lang|el|το}} {{wikt-lang|el|παρόν}} (for now)
• {{wikt-lang|el|νίπτω τας χείρας μου}} (figurative, I wash my hands [of him, her, it]); adapted from the Ancient Greek phrase describing Pontius Pilate washing his hands at Matthew 27:24; for actual hand-washing, the Demotic phrase is {{wikt-lang|el|πλένω}} {{wikt-lang|el|τα}} {{wikt-lang|el|χέρια}} {{wikt-lang|el|μου}}.Pring, J.T. The Pocket Oxford Greek Dictionary. (New York: 1965 & 1982; 2000 ed.){{rp|xii}}

Special dative forms:

• {{lang|el|δόξα τω Θεώ}} (thank God)
• {{lang|el|εν ονόματι ...}} (in the name [of] ...)
• {{lang|el|τοις μετρητοίς}} (in cash)
• {{lang|el|εν συνεχεία}} (following)
• {{lang|el|εν τω μεταξύ}} (meanwhile)
• {{lang|el|εν αγνοία}} (in ignorance [of])
• {{lang|el|συν τοις άλλοις}} (moreover)
• {{lang|el|επί τω έργω}} (working, literally on the deed)
• {{lang|el|τοις εκατό}} (percent, literally in a hundred)
• {{lang|el|ιδίοις χερσί}} (with [one's] own hands)

• Adjectives ending in {{lang|el|-ων}}, {{lang|el|-ουσα}}, {{lang|el|-ον}} (e.g. {{lang|el|ενδιαφέρων}} interesting) or in {{lang|el|-ων}}, {{lang|el|-ων}}, {{lang|el|-ον}} (e.g. {{lang|el|σώφρων}} thoughtful) - mostly in written language.
• Declinable aorist participle, e.g. {{lang|el|παραδώσας}} (having delivered), {{lang|el|γεννηθείς}} ([having been] born) - mostly in written language.
• Reduplication in the perfect. E.g. {{lang|el|προσκεκλημένος}} (invited), {{lang|el|πεπαλαιωμένος}} (obsolete)

Modern Greek features many letter combinations that were avoided in traditional Demotic:

• {{lang|el|-πτ-}} (e.g. {{lang|el|πταίσμα}} "misdemeanor"); Demotic preferred {{lang|el|-φτ-}} (e.g. {{lang|el|φταίω}} "to err; to be guilty")
• {{lang|el|-κτ-}} (e.g. {{lang|el|κτίσμα}} "building, structure"); Demotic preferred {{lang|el|-χτ-}} [e.g. {{lang|el|χτίστης}} "(stone)mason"]
• {{lang|el|-ευδ-}} (e.g. {{lang|el|ψεύδος}} "falsity, lie"); Demotic preferred {{lang|el|-ευτ-}} (e.g. {{lang|el|ψεύτης}} "liar")
• {{lang|el|-σθ-}} (e.g. {{lang|el|ηρκέσθην}} / {{lang|el|αρκέσθηκα}} "I was sufficed / satisfied"); Demotic preferred {{lang|el|-στ-}} (e.g. {{lang|el|αρκέστηκα}})
• {{lang|el|-χθ-}} (e.g. {{lang|el|(ε)χθές}} "yesterday"); Demotic preferred {{lang|el|-χτ-}} [e.g. {{lang|el|(ε)χτές}}]
• etc.

Native Greek speakers, depending upon their level of education, may often make mistakes in these "educated" aspects of their language; one can often see mistakes like {{lang|el|προήχθη}} instead of {{lang|el|προήχθην}} (I've been promoted), {{lang|el|λόγου του ότι/λόγο το ότι}} instead of {{lang|el|λόγω του ότι}} ({{not a typo|due to the fact that}}), {{lang|el|τον ενδιαφέρον άνθρωπο}} instead of {{lang|el|τον ενδιαφέροντα άνθρωπο}} (the interesting person), {{lang|el|οι ενδιαφέροντες γυναίκες}} instead of {{lang|el|οι ενδιαφέρουσες γυναίκες}} (the interesting women), {{lang|el|ο ψήφος}} instead of {{lang|el|η ψήφος}} (the vote). {{citation needed|date=September 2016}}

One of the most radical proponents of a language that was to be cleansed of all "educated" elements was Giannis Psycharis, who lived in France and gained fame through his work My Voyage ({{lang|el|Το ταξίδι μου}}, 1888). Not only did Psycharis propagate the exclusive use of the naturally grown colloquial language, but he actually opted for simplifying the morphology of Katharevousa forms prescription.{{citation needed|date=July 2015}}

For instance, Psycharis proposed changing the form of the neuter noun "light" {{lang|el|το φως}} (gen. {{lang|el|του φωτός}}) into {{lang|el|το φώτο}} (gen. {{lang|el|του φώτου}}). Such radical forms had occasional precedent in Renaissance attempts to write in Demotic, and reflected Psycharis' linguistic training as a Neogrammarian, mistrusting the possibility of exceptions in linguistic evolution. Moreover, Psycharis also advocated spelling reform, which would have meant abolishing most of the six different ways to write the vowel /i/ and all instances of double consonants. Therefore, he wrote his own name as {{lang|el|Γιάνης}}, instead of {{lang|el|Γιάννης}}.{{citation needed|date=July 2015}}

As written and spoken Demotic became standardized over the next few decades, many compromises were made with Katharevousa (as is reflected in contemporary standard Greek) despite the loud objections of Psycharis and the radical "psycharist" ({{lang|el|ψυχαρικοί}}) camp within the proponents of Demotic's use. Eventually these ideas of radical demoticism were largely marginalized and when a standardized Demotic was made the official language of the Greek state in 1976, the legislation stated that it would be used "without dialectal and extremist forms"—an explicit rejection of Psycharis' ideals.{{ cite Greek law | law = 309 | art= 2 | clause=2 | date = 30 April 1976 | en = Concerning the organisation and administration of General Education | el = Περὶ ὀργανώσεως καὶ διοικήσεως τῆς Γενικῆς Ἐκπαιδεύσεως. | url = https://search.et.gr/el/fek/?fekId=687982}}

{{blockquote |{{lang|el|Ὡς Νεοελληνικὴ γλῶσσα νοεῖται ἡ διαμορφωθεῖσα εἰς πανελλήνιον ἐκφραστικὸν ὄργανον ὑπὸ τοῦ Ἑλληνικοῦ Λαοῦ καὶ τῶν δοκίμων συγγραφέων τοῦ Ἔθνους Δημοτική, συντεταγμένη, ἄνευ ἰδιωματισμῶν καὶ ἀκροτήτων.}}

"Modern Greek language means the Demotic shaped into a pan-Hellenic instrument of expression by the Greek People and the esteemed writers of the Nation, coherent, without peculiar and extreme forms."}}

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