dicamba

File:Dicamba USA 2019.png

Dicamba is a selective and systemic herbicide that kills annual and perennial broadleaf weeds.{{cite web |title=Dicamba (Ref: SAN 837H) |url=http://sitem.herts.ac.uk/aeru/ppdb/en/Reports/213.htm |website=Pesticide Properties DataBase |publisher=University of Hertfordshire}} Its primary commercial applications are weed control for grain crops and turf areas. It is also used to control brush and bracken in pastures, as well as controlling legumes and cacti. In combination with a phenoxy herbicide or with other herbicides, dicamba can be used for weed control in range land and other noncrop areas (fence rows, roadways, railways,pipelines, transmission lines and wastage). Dicamba is toxic to conifer species but is in general less toxic to grasses.Arnold P. Appleby, Franz Müller. "Weed Control, 2" in Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry 2011, Wiley-VCH, Weinheim. {{doi|10.1002/14356007.o28_o01}}

Dicamba is a synthetic auxin that functions by increasing plant growth rate, leading to senescence and cell death.{{cite journal |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0017245 |doi-access=free |title=Mutant Analysis in Arabidopsis Provides Insight into the Molecular Mode of Action of the Auxinic Herbicide Dicamba |year=2011 |last1=Gleason |first1=Cynthia |last2=Foley |first2=Rhonda C. |last3=Singh |first3=Karam B. |journal=PLOS ONE |volume=6 |issue=3 |pages=e17245 |pmid=21408147 |pmc=3050828 |bibcode=2011PLoSO...617245G }}

The growth regulating properties of dicamba were first discovered by Zimmerman and Hitchcock in 1942.{{cite journal|last=Peterson|first=Gale E.|title=The Discovery and Development of 2,4-D |journal=Agricultural History |volume=41| issue = 3|date=1967|pages=243–254|url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/3740338|access-date=10 Nov 2020|publisher=Agricultural History Society|jstor=3740338}} Soon after, Jealott's Hill Experimental Station in England was evaluating dicamba in the field. Dicamba has since been used for household and commercial weed control.

Increasing use of dicamba has been reported with the release of dicamba-resistant genetically modified plants by Monsanto. In October 2016, the EPA launched a criminal investigation into the illegal application of older, drift prone formulations of dicamba onto these new plants.{{cite news|last1=Weinraub|first1=Mark|title=U.S. agency searches for proof of criminal use of herbicide dicamba|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/usa-soybeans-dicamba-idUSL1N1CV2EG|access-date=29 October 2016|publisher=Reuters|date=25 October 2016}}{{cite news|title=EPA Probes Dicamba Use- Federal Search Warrants Issued in Missouri |url=http://kticradio.com/agricultural/epa-probes-dicamba-use-federal-search-warrants-issued-in-missouri/|access-date=4 October 2017|date= 25 October 2016|publisher=KTIC Radio}} Older formulations have been reported to drift after application and affect other crops not meant to be treated.{{cite news|last1=Gray|first1=Bryce|title=Suspected illegal herbicide use takes toll on southeast Missouri farmers|url=https://www.stltoday.com/business/local/suspected-illegal-herbicide-use-takes-toll-on-southeast-missouri-farmers/article_af161843-b6cf-5939-beba-fc23585e8478.html|access-date=16 August 2016|work=St Louis Post-Dispatch|date=5 August 2016}}{{cite news|last1=Gray|first1=Bryce|title=Illegal herbicide use may threaten survival of Missouri's largest peach farm|url=https://www.stltoday.com/business/local/illegal-herbicide-use-may-threaten-survival-of-missouri-s-largest/article_c4a4a96b-aba3-5e48-83b5-a546f5a9b8b1.html|access-date=16 August 2016|publisher=St Louis Post-Dispatch|date=14 August 2016}} A less volatile formulation of dicamba made by Monsanto, designed to be less prone to vaporizing and inhibit unintended drift between fields, was approved for use in the United States by the EPA in 2016, and was commercially available in 2017.{{cite news|url=https://www.stltoday.com/business/local/epa-approves-monsanto-s-less-volatile-form-of-dicamba-herbicide/article_391a036d-fc66-55e3-804c-0f261d03ac11.html|work=St. Louis Post-Dispatch|last=Gray|first=Bryce|date=9 November 2016|title=EPA approves Monsanto's less-volatile form of dicamba herbicide|access-date=24 June 2017}} As a result, the use of dicamba in US agriculture rose sharply from approximately {{convert|8000000|lb|kg}} in 2016 to {{convert|30000000|lb|kg}} in 2019, according to the US Geological Survey.{{cite web |url=https://water.usgs.gov/nawqa/pnsp/usage/maps/show_map.php?year=2019&map=DICAMBA&hilo=L |title=Estimated Agricultural Use for Dicamba, 2019 |author=US Geological Survey |date=2021-10-12 |access-date=2021-12-27 }}

Dicamba came under scrutiny due to its reputation for drifting from treated fields onto neighboring crops.{{cite web |title=Dicamba Know-How: Seven Things to Know Before You Spray Dicamba in 2020 |url=https://www.dtnpf.com/agriculture/web/ag/crops/article/2020/04/03/seven-things-know-spray-dicamba-2020 |publisher=Progressive Farmer |access-date=10 July 2020}}{{cite news |last=Pollack |first=Andrew |date=25 April 2012 |title=Dow Corn, Resistant to a Weed Killer, Runs into Opposition |newspaper=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2012/04/26/business/energy-environment/dow-weed-killer-runs-into-opposition.html?_r=0 |access-date=1 August 2016 |archiveurl=https://archive.today/20130104103413/http://www.nytimes.com/2012/04/26/business/energy-environment/dow-weed-killer-runs-into-opposition.html?_r=0 |archivedate=4 January 2013}} In 2011, the European Food Safety Authority identified dicamba's potential for long-range transport through the atmosphere as a critical area of concern.{{Cite web |date=2011-01-14 |title=Conclusion on the peer review of the pesticide risk assessment of the active substance dicamba {{!}} EFSA |url=https://www.efsa.europa.eu/en/efsajournal/pub/1965 |access-date=2023-12-23 |website=www.efsa.europa.eu |language=en |doi=10.2903/j.efsa.2011.1965}} In 2022, the United States Environmental Protection Agency identified spray drift as the primary ecological risk for dicamba due to its potential effects on non-target terrestrial plants. Dicamba is also available in a drift-resistant formulation, which is less likely to affect neighboring fields.

In 2022 the EPA identified potential occupational risks to handlers mixing and loading dry flowable formulations for application to sod and field crops. The Agency did not identify dietary, residential, aggregate, or post-application risks of concern.

Increased lung and colon cancer rate ratios and positive exposure–response patterns were reported for dicamba, in a review of data gathered in the National Institutes of Health's Agricultural Health Study.{{cite journal |last1=Weichenthal |first1=Scott |last2=Moase |first2=Connie |last3=Chan |first3=Peter |title=A Review of Pesticide Exposure and Cancer Incidence in the Agricultural Health Study Cohort |journal=Environmental Health Perspectives |date=August 2010 |volume=118 |issue=8 |pages=1117–1125 |doi=10.1289/ehp.0901731|pmc=2920083 }} The Cross-Canada Study of Pesticides and Health found that exposure to dicamba increased the risk of non-Hodgkins lymphoma in men.{{cite journal | url=https://cebp.aacrjournals.org/content/10/11/1155.long | title=Non-Hodgkin's Lymphoma and Specific Pesticide Exposures in Men | journal=Cancer Epidemiology, Biomarkers & Prevention | date=November 2001 | volume=10 | issue=11 | first1=Helen H. | last1=McDuffie | first2=Punam | last2=Pahwa | first3=John R. | last3=McLaughlin | first4=John J. | last4=Spinelli | first5=Shirley | last5=Fincham | first6=James A. | last6=Dosman | first7=Diane | last7=Robson | first8=Leo F. | last8=Skinnider | first9=Norman W. | last9=Choi | accessdate=13 April 2021 }}

Dicamba has low toxicity by ingestion and inhalation or dermal exposure (oral {{LD50}} in rats: 757 mg/kg body weight, dermal LD₅₀ in rats: >2,000 mg/kg, inhalation LC₅₀ in rats: >200 mg/L). In a three-generation study, dicamba did not affect the reproductive capacity of rats.

When rabbits were given doses of 0, 0.5, 1, 3, 10, or 20 (mg/kg)/day of technical dicamba from days 6 through 18 of pregnancy, toxic effects on the mothers, slightly reduced fetal body weights, and increased loss of fetuses occurred at the 10 mg/kg dose. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has set the NOAEL for this study at 3 (mg/kg)/day.

In dog tests, some enlargement of liver cells has occurred, but a similar effect has not been shown in humans.{{cite web|url=http://pmep.cce.cornell.edu/profiles/extoxnet/carbaryl-dicrotophos/dicamba-ext.html|title=Pesticide Information Profile – Dicamba| publisher= Pesticide Management Education Program, Cornell University|date=September 1993|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20200927021025/http://pmep.cce.cornell.edu/profiles/extoxnet/carbaryl-dicrotophos/dicamba-ext.html|archivedate=27 September 2020}}

Dicamba and its derivatives are practically nontoxic to aquatic invertebrates. Studies suggest that dicamba should be considered to be a potential endocrine disruptor for fish at environmentally relevant concentrations.{{cite journal|last1=Zhu|first1=L|last2=Li|first2=W|last3=Zha|first3=J|last4=Wang|first4=Z|title=Dicamba affects sex steroid hormone level and mRNA expression of related genes in adult rare minnow (Gobiocypris rarus) at environmentally relevant concentrations.|journal=Environmental Toxicology|date=2015|volume=30|issue=6|pages=693–703|doi=10.1002/tox.21947|pmid=24420721|bibcode=2015EnTox..30..693Z|s2cid=45373092|url=http://ir.rcees.ac.cn/handle/311016/32753|url-access=subscription}}

The 2022 EPA draft ecological risk assessment identified potential adverse effects to birds, and bee larvae for all dicamba uses.

The soil bacterium Pseudomonas maltophilia (strain DI-6) converts dicamba to 3,6-dichlorosalicylic acid (3,6-DCSA), which lacks herbicidal activity. The enzymes responsible for this first breakdown step comprise a three-component system called dicamba O-demethylase.{{cite journal |last1=Behrens |first1=M. R. |last2=Mutlu |first2=N. |last3=Chakraborty |first3=S. |last4=Dumitru |first4=R. |last5=Jiang |first5=W. Z. |last6=Lavallee |first6=B. J. |last7=Herman |first7=P. L. |last8=Clemente |first8=T. E. |last9=Weeks |first9=D. P. |year=2007 |title=Dicamba Resistance: Enlarging and Preserving Biotechnology-Based Weed Management Strategies |url=http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1031&context=plantscifacpub |journal=Science |volume=316 |issue=5828 |pages=1185–8 |bibcode=2007Sci...316.1185B |doi=10.1126/science.1141596 |pmid=17525337 |s2cid=7093076|url-access=subscription }}

In the 2000s, Monsanto incorporated one component of the three enzymes into the genome of soybean, cotton, and other broadleaf crop plants, making them resistant to dicamba. {{anchor|Xtend}}Monsanto has marketed their dicamba resistant crops under the brand name Xtend.{{cite news |last=Charles |first=Dan |date=1 August 2016 |title=Crime in the Fields: How Monsanto And Scofflaw Farmers Hurt Soybeans in Arkansas |newspaper=NPR |url=https://www.npr.org/sections/thesalt/2016/08/01/487809643/crime-in-the-fields-how-monsanto-and-scofflaw-farmers-hurt-soybeans-in-arkansas |access-date=1 August 2016}}

Farmers have expressed concern about being forced to grow resistant crops as protection against drifting dicamba.

Herbicide resistance after the introduction of resistant crops is a common concern with herbicide.{{cite web |date=2 August 2016 |title=Business: Monsanto's Superweeds Saga Is Only Getting Worse |url=https://www.yahoo.com/news/monsanto-superweeds-saga-only-getting-worse-000354904.html |access-date=3 August 2016 |publisher=Yahoo, TakePart.com}} In the laboratory, researchers have demonstrated weed resistance to dicamba within three generations of exposure. This effect is illustrated by glyphosate-resistant crops (marketed as 'Roundup Ready').[http://www.scientificamerican.com/media/inline/a-hard-look-at-3-myths-about-genetically-modified-crops_3.jpg The Rise of Superweeds] scientificamerican.com The weed species Amaranthus palmeri and Bassia scoparia developed resistance to dicamba already in the 1990s.{{cite journal |last1=Cranston |first1=Harwood J. |last2=Kern |first2=Anthony J. |last3=Hackett |first3=Josette L. |last4=Miller |first4=Erica K. |last5=Maxwell |first5=Bruce D. |last6=Dyer |first6=William E. |year=2001 |title=Dicamba resistance in kochia |journal=Weed Science |volume=49 |issue=2 |pages=164 |doi=10.1614/0043-1745(2001)049[0164:DRIK]2.0.CO;2}}

Dicamba's HRAC resistance class is Group I (Aus), Group O (Global), Group 4 (numeric).{{cite web |title=Australia Herbicide Classification Lookup |url=https://hracglobal.com/tools/australia-classification-lookup/ |website=Herbicide Resistance Action Committee |language=en}}{{cite web |title=2024 HRAC GLOBAL HERBICIDE MOA CLASSIFICATION MASTER LIST |url=https://hracglobal.com/tools/2024-hrac-global-herbicide-moa-classification |website=Herbicide Resistance Action Committee |language=en}}

File:DicambaDeMeth.svg

Dicamba is poorly soluble in water. A study conducted from 1991 to 1996 by the U.S. Geologic Survey found dicamba in 0.13% of the groundwaters surveyed. The maximum level detected was 0.0021 mg/L.{{cite journal |last1=Kolpin |first1=Dana W. |last2=Barbash |first2=Jack E. |last3=Gilliom |first3=Robert J. |title=Pesticides in Ground Water of the United States, 1992–1996 |journal=Groundwater |date=November 2000 |volume=38 |issue=6 |pages=858–863 |doi=10.1111/j.1745-6584.2000.tb00684.x|bibcode=2000GrWat..38..858K }}

It is biodegraded by both aerobic and anaerobic bacteria to 3,6-dichlorosalicylic acid. This conversion is catalyzed by a dicamba monooxygenase, which hydroxylates the methyl group of dicamba. The hydroxymethylated derivative hydrolyzes readily to an inactive dichlorosalicylic acid or its conjugate base. Modification of the gene encoding this enzyme is one strategy toward dicamba-resistant crops.{{cite journal |doi=10.1016/j.jmb.2009.07.021 |title=Crystal Structure of Dicamba Monooxygenase: A Rieske Nonheme Oxygenase that Catalyzes Oxidative Demethylation |date=2009 |last1=Dumitru |first1=Razvan |last2=Jiang |first2=Wen Zhi |last3=Weeks |first3=Donald P. |last4=Wilson |first4=Mark A. |journal=Journal of Molecular Biology |volume=392 |issue=2 |pages=498–510 |pmid=19616011 |pmc=3109874 }} The dichlorosalicylic acid is far less toxic than dicamba, which is already rather low.{{cite journal | last1=Krueger | first1=James P. | last2=Butz | first2=Robert G. | last3=Atallah | first3=Yousef H. | last4=Cork | first4=Douglas J. | title=Isolation and identification of microorganisms for the degradation of Dicamba | journal=Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry | volume=37 | issue=2 | date=1989 | issn=0021-8561 | doi=10.1021/jf00086a057 | pages=534–538}}{{cite journal | last1=Milligan | first1=Peter W. | last2=Häggblom | first2=Max M. | title=Biodegradation and Biotransformation of Dicamba under Different Reducing Conditions | journal=Environmental Science & Technology | volume=33 | issue=8 | date=1999-04-01 | issn=0013-936X | doi=10.1021/es981117e | pages=1224–1229| bibcode=1999EnST...33.1224M }}

Complaints against dicamba accelerated after the United States EPA approved a Monsanto-created soybean which could tolerate it in 2016.{{Cite web |title=Dicamba Lawsuit | Crop Damage Compensation for Farmers |url=https://www.consumernotice.org/legal/dicamba-lawsuits/ |website=ConsumerNotice.org}} The soybean was a part of Monsanto's Xtend products. Dicamba was approved by the EPA for "over-the-top" (OTT) use on those dicamba-tolerant soybean and cotton crops. In 2017 and again in 2018, EPA amended the registrations of all OTT dicamba products following reports that farmers had experienced crop damage and economic losses resulting from spray drifting.

Arkansas and Missouri banned the sale and use of dicamba in July 2017 in response to complaints of crop damage due to drift.{{cite news |last1=Gray |first1=Bryce |date=7 July 2017 |title=Missouri and Arkansas ban dicamba herbicide as complaints snowball |publisher=St. Louis Post-Dispatch |url=https://www.stltoday.com/business/local/missouri-and-arkansas-ban-dicamba-herbicide-as-complaints-snowball/article_2f0739e8-1b7f-5759-81b2-d78b7e249bac.html |access-date=10 July 2017}} Monsanto responded by arguing that not all instances of crop damage had been investigated and a ban was premature.{{cite news |last1=Pucci |first1=Jackie |date=10 July 2017 |title=Monsanto Responds to Arkansas, Missouri Dicamba Bans |publisher=Crop Life |url=http://www.croplife.com/crop-inputs/monsanto-responds-to-arkansas-missouri-dicamba-bans/ |access-date=10 July 2017}} Monsanto sued the state of Arkansas to stop the ban, but the case was dismissed in February 2018.{{cite web |last1=Nosowitz |first1=Dan |date=20 February 2018 |title=Monsanto's Lawsuit Against Arkansas for Dicamba Ban Dismissed |url=https://modernfarmer.com/2018/02/monsanto-lawsuit-arkansas-dicamba-ban/ |access-date=7 March 2018 |website=Modern Farmer}} It has also been acknowledged that the use of dicamba had increased since 2017.

In June 2020, the 9th U.S. Circuit Court of Appeals blocked sales of three dicamba-based herbicides in the United States, finding that the Environmental Protection Agency "substantially understated risks that it acknowledged and failed entirely to acknowledge other risks."{{cite news |date=4 June 2020 |title=U.S. Court Blocks Sales of Bayer Weed Killer in United States |agency=Reuters |url=https://www.nytimes.com/reuters/2020/06/04/business/04reuters-bayer-dicamba-lawsuit.html |access-date=11 June 2020}}{{cite web |last1=US EPA |first1=OCSPP |date=8 June 2020 |title=Final Cancellation Order for Three Dicamba Products |url=https://www.epa.gov/ingredients-used-pesticide-products/final-cancellation-order-three-dicamba-products |access-date=11 June 2020 |website=US EPA |language=en}} The EPA's Office of the Inspector General concluded that the EPA had deviated from typical procedures in its 2018 decision despite the best efforts of EPA's career scientists and managers to recommend a different approach that was scientifically, procedurally, and legally sound.

On 8 June 2020, the EPA clarified that existing stocks of the dicamba-based pesticides bought before 3 June 2020 may be used according to their previous labels until 31 July 2020.{{cite web |date=8 June 2020 |title=EPA Offers Clarity to Farmers in Light of Recent Court Vacatur of Dicamba Registrations |url=https://www.epa.gov/newsreleases/epa-offers-clarity-farmers-light-recent-court-vacatur-dicamba-registrations |access-date=11 June 2020 |publisher=EPA}} In October 2020 the EPA issued a decision on the registration application of three dicamba-based products, Xtendimax, Engenia, and Tavium. They approved of their use from 2021 to 2025 with some additional changes, including labeling restrictions.{{cite web |date=9 November 2020 |title=EPA Approves Dicamba Pesticides Through 2025; Additional Restrictions Imposed |url=https://agrilife.org/texasaglaw/2020/11/09/epa-approves-dicamba-pesticides-through-2025-additional-restrictions-imposed/ |access-date=May 26, 2021 |website=Texas Agricultural Extension}}

Despite the control measures implemented by the EPA in 2020, the 2021 incident reports showed little change in the number, severity, and/or geographic extent of dicamba-related incidents. In March 2022 and in February 2023, EPA approved additional labeling to further restrict use of OTT dicamba to reduce the likelihood of volatility and offsite movement of OTT dicamba by avoiding application on days with high temperatures. The restrictions apply to Minnesota, Iowa, Illinois, Indiana, and South Dakota.

In February 2018, it was reported that numerous farmers from 21 states had filed lawsuits against Monsanto alleging that dicamba damaged their crops, with the most prominent cases coming from Missouri and Arkansas.{{Cite web|url=https://www.classaction.com/dicamba/lawsuit/|title=Dicamba Damage Lawsuit - Monsanto Herbicide Lawyers|website=ClassAction.com}} By August 2019, more lawsuits were filed, alleging that dicamba had damaged crops, gardens, and trees of neighbors of the farmers who used it.{{Cite web|url=https://will.illinois.edu/news/story/despite-federal-state-efforts-dicamba-complaints-continue|title=Despite Federal, State Efforts, Dicamba Complaints Continue|date=31 August 2019|website=Illinois Public Media}}{{Cite web|url=https://biologicaldiversity.org/w/news/press-releases/farmers-conservationists-challenge-approval-of-monsantos-crop-damaging-dicamba-pesticide-2019-08-14/|title=Farmers, Conservationists Challenge Approval of Monsanto's Crop-damaging Dicamba Pesticide|website=Center for Biological Diversity}}

On 27 January 2020, the first trial concerning dicamba-related products began in Cape Girardeau, Missouri.{{Cite web|url=https://news.stlpublicradio.org/post/dicamba-related-federal-trial-begins-southeast-missouri|title=Dicamba-Related Federal Trial Begins in Southeast Missouri|first=Corinne|last=Ruff|website=news.stlpublicradio.org|date=28 January 2020 }}{{Cite web|url=http://kduz.com/2020/01/27/bayer-basf-dicamba-lawsuit/|title=Bayer/BASF-Dicamba Lawsuit | KDUZ}} The lawsuit involves a peach farmer who alleged that dicamba-based herbicides caused significant damage to his crops and trees.{{Cite web|url=https://www.stltoday.com/business/local/monsanto-s-defense-fungal-disease-not-dicamba-to-blame-for/article_ff86fdd7-b842-5902-abde-966627cc1cc0.html|title=Monsanto's defense: Fungal disease, not dicamba, to blame for peach farmer's problems|first=Johnathan Hettinger Midwest Center for Investigative|last=Reporting|website=stltoday.com}} It had also been filed in November 2016, when dicamba was still owned by Monsanto.{{Cite web|url=https://www.stltoday.com/business/local/dicamba-on-trial-monsanto-officials-limited-testing-on-their-own/article_8ec11fa7-8379-58db-a010-eb130ad7fb2d.html|title=Dicamba on trial: Monsanto officials limited testing on their own plots|first=Johnathan Hettinger Midwest Center for Investigative|last=Reporting|website=stltoday.com}}{{Cite web|url=https://news.stlpublicradio.org/post/dicamba-goes-trial-history-behind-monsanto-s-friendship-wilting-weed-killer|title=Dicamba Goes on Trial: The History Behind Monsanto's Friendship-Wilting Weed Killer|first=Corinne|last=Ruff|website=news.stlpublicradio.org|date=24 January 2020}}{{Cite web|url=https://www.stltoday.com/business/local/peach-farmer-takes-stand-in-lawsuit-against-bayer-basf/article_91cb9a65-69fa-514e-8922-3972a51b23ee.html|title=Peach farmer takes stand in lawsuit against Bayer, BASF|first=Johnathan Hettinger Midwest Center for Investigative|last=Reporting|website=stltoday.com}} On 14 February 2020, the jury involved in the lawsuit ruled against dicamba owner Bayer and its co-defendant BASF and found in favor of the peach grower, Bader Farms owner Bill Bader.{{Cite web|url=https://www.stltoday.com/business/local/jury-finds-in-favor-of-missouri-peach-grower-in-lawsuit/article_adcb9979-ca3e-557b-878e-7be4e301adbc.html|title=Jury finds in favor of Missouri peach grower in lawsuit against Bayer, BASF|first=Bryce|last=Gray|website=stltoday.com}} Bayer and BASF were also ordered to pay Bader $15 million in damages.{{cite news | url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2020-02-14/bayer-ordered-to-pay-15-million-over-dicamba-crop-damage | title=Bayer's Dicamba Hit Tests Patience of Frustrated Investors | newspaper=Bloomberg.com | date=14 February 2020 }} On 15 February 2020, Monsanto and BASF were ordered to pay an additional $250 million in punitive damages.{{Cite web|url=https://news.stlpublicradio.org/post/monsanto-basf-will-pay-250-million-punitive-damages-first-dicamba-trial|title=Monsanto, BASF Will Pay $250 Million in Punitive Damages in First Dicamba Trial|first=Corinne|last=Ruff|website=news.stlpublicradio.org|date=15 February 2020}}{{Cite web|url=https://www.nytimes.com/aponline/2020/02/15/business/bc-us-dicamba-lawsuit-missouri.html|title=Missouri Farm Awarded $265M in Suit Against BASF and Bayer|agency=Associated Press|date=15 February 2020|newspaper=The New York Times}} Court documents revealed Monsanto had used dicamba drift as a sales pitch to convince farmers to buy their proprietary dicamba-resistant seeds or face devastated crops.{{ cite journal |title= Bitter Harvest |first=Andy |last=McGlashen |date=Winter 2022 |page= 45 |work= Audubon |location= New York, NY |publisher=Audubon Society |issn=0004-7694 |oclc=6823366 }}

On 17 February, it was announced that dicamba would face many more lawsuits.{{cite web|url=https://fortune.com/2020/02/17/bayer-basf-dicamba-lawsuit-monsanto/ |title=Bayer is facing a new wave of herbicide lawsuits—and this time it's not over Monsanto's Roundup |website=fortune.com |last1=Feeley |first1=Jef |last2=Bross |first2=Tim |last3=Bloomberg |date=17 February 2020 |access-date=17 December 2020}} On 26 February, the Peiffer Wolf Carr & Kane Law Firm announced that after the Bader verdict, more than 2,000 U.S. farmers hired the law firm to represent them in upcoming lawsuits.{{cite news|url=https://www.agriculture.com/news/business/more-than-2000-farmers-are-expected-to-file-dicamba-damage-lawsuits-says-law-firm|title=More Than 2,000 Farmer Are Expected To File Dicamba-Damage Lawsuits, Says Law Firm|publisher=Successful Farming|date=26 February 2020|access-date=11 March 2020}}

In June 2020, Bayer agreed to a settlement of up to $400 million for all 2015–2020 crop year dicamba claims, not including the $250 million judgement.[https://www.npr.org/2020/06/24/882949098/bayer-to-pay-more-than-10-billion-to-resolve-roundup-cancer-lawsuits Bayer To Pay More Than $10 Billion To Resolve Cancer Lawsuits Over Weedkiller Roundup] On 25 November 2020, U.S. District Judge Stephen Limbaugh Jr. reduced the punitive damage amount in the Bader Farms case to $60 million.{{cite news|url=https://www.semissourian.com/story/2853810.html|title=District Judge orders reduction of punitive damages in dicamba case|first=J.C.|last=Reeves|publisher=Southeast Missourian|date=15 December 2020|access-date=15 December 2020}}

{{Reflist}}

{{Commons category}}

• [https://www.fs.usda.gov/Internet/FSE_DOCUMENTS/stelprdb5325238.pdf Appendix E: Herbicide Information], US Department of Agriculture
• [https://web.archive.org/web/20070809021052/http://www.speclab.com/compound/c1918009.htm Chemical Fact Sheet], Speclab.com
• [http://npic.orst.edu/factsheets/archive/dicamba_tech.html Dicamba Technical Fact Sheet – National Pesticide Information Center]
• [http://npic.orst.edu/factsheets/dicamba_gen.pdf Dicamba General Fact Sheet – National Pesticide Information Center]
• [http://extoxnet.orst.edu/pips/dicamba.htm Dicamba Pesticide Information Profile – Extension Toxicology Network]
• [https://www.roundupreadyxtend.com/Pages/default.aspx Monsanto's Xtend Crop System Product Page]
• [https://web.archive.org/web/20061006100518/http://www.epa.gov/oppsrrd1/REDs/dicamba_red.pdf EPA Dicamba Reregistration Eligibility Decision]

{{Herbicides}}

{{Authority control}}

Category:Auxinic herbicides

Category:Benzoic acids

Category:Chloroarenes

Category:Salicylyl ethers

Category:Systemic herbicides

Category:Group 4 herbicides