digital euro

Arguments and motives for the introduction of a digital euro are, according to the ECB:{{cite web|access-date=2022-03-04|first=Fabio |last=Panetta|date=2021-11-18|publisher=Europäische Zentralbank {{!}} Eurosystem|title=Ein digitaler Euro für den Zahlungsverkehr von morgen|url=https://www.ecb.europa.eu/press/key/date/2021/html/ecb.sp211118~b36013b7c5.de.html}}{{cite web|access-date=2022-10-01|date=July 2022|format=PDF|publisher=Europäische Zentralbank - Eurosystem|title=Argumente für einen digitalen Euro: Hauptziele und Gestaltungsaspekte|url=https://www.ecb.europa.eu/pub/pdf/other/key_objectives_digital_euro~f11592d6fb.de.pdf}}

• Preserving central bank money's role as a monetary anchor for the payment system.{{cite web|access-date=2023-03-11|date=2022-10-05|publisher=Europäische Zentralbank {{!}} Eurosystem|title=Der digitale Euro und die Bedeutung von Zentralbankgeld|url=https://www.ecb.europa.eu/ecb/educational/explainers/html/digital_euro_central_bank_money.de.html}}
• Provide free digital access to a secure legal tender in the Eurozone
• Expanding payment options through alternative central bank money alongside cash and book money in commercial bank accounts, contributing to availability and inclusion
• Building trust in digital cash through a high level of privacy protection
• Promote innovation in retail payments
• Limiting the spread of foreign digital currencies to safeguard the financial stability and monetary sovereignty of the Eurozone{{cite web|access-date=2023-03-14|date=2022-07-04|title=Wozu ein digitaler Euro?|url=https://www.forbes.at/artikel/WOZU-EIN-DIGITALER-EURO.html|website=forbes.at}}
• Wealth redistribution and social aid would be greatly simplified.

In addition to these motives, the possibility of a further decline in the use of cash as a means of payment plays a role in the discussion on the digital euro.{{cite web|access-date=2022-03-07|format=PDF|publisher=Deutsche Bundesbank, Monatsbericht Oktober 2021|title=Wie stehen private Haushalte in Deutschland zum digitalen Euro? Erste Ergebnisse aus Umfragen und Interviews|url=https://www.bundesbank.de/resource/blob/878908/8222f73e033984d0e346dbe1b51bc4a8/mL/2021-10-digitaler-euro-private-haushalte-data.pdf}}

• Increased centralisation and central planning of monetary policy
• Loss of privacy
• Risk of financial censorship and loss of human rights
• Hacking and information security issues
• Higher risks of loss of central bank independence and political influence on monetary policy
• Potential for much faster transmission of bad monetary policy
• Risks to banking system of bank runs towards CBDC
• Distribution fairness issues (Cantillon effect)
• Higher political control of individual spending and saving
• Weakened Property Rights

While Christine Lagarde has publicly addressed some of these risks, critics consider her responses inadequate. Critics point to the digital Renminbi CBDC and how it has experimented with many of the right-restricting features (including geo-fencing, geo-tracking, amount limits, time limits, etc). They also point to the e-naira and Venezuelan Petro and their monetary policy issues. Similarly de-banking issues and financial censorship have been on the rise in recent years, critics fear that a centrally planned, centrally controlled and managed system would have the potential for a much higher level of censorship and discrimination by authorities.

The prototype{{cite web |title=Digital Euro - Prototype summary |url=https://www.ecb.europa.eu/pub/pdf/other/ecb.prototype_summary20230526%7E71d0b26d55.en.pdf |publisher=ECB}} developed by the ECB as part of the investigation phase includes conditional payments, this points to the potential for programmability of the digital euro and thus similar risks to individual rights as in the digital renminbi.

According to the Human Rights Foundation, CBDCs risk imposing sweeping financial surveillance, restriction of financial activity, frozen funds, seizure of funds, negative interest rates, tools for corruption, cyberattack risks and disruptions to financial stability.https://cbdctracker.hrf.org/cbdc-101

On 2 October 2020, the ECB published a report outlining the introduction of a digital euro from the perspective of the Eurosystem.{{cite web|access-date=2022-02-16|date=2020|publisher=Europäische Zentralbank {{!}} Eurosystem|title=Bericht über einen digitalen Euro|url=https://www.ecb.europa.eu/paym/digital_euro/report/html/index.de.html}}{{cite web|access-date=2022-03-04|author=Fabio Panetta|date=2020-10-20|publisher=The ECB Blog|title=We must be prepared to issue a digital euro|url=https://www.ecb.europa.eu/press/blog/date/2020/html/ecb.blog201002~12ab1c06b5.en.html}}

Since 2020, several projects have been launched in collaboration with the European Investment Bank (EIB) to test the issuance, control and transfer of central bank digital currency, as well as securities tokens and smart contracts on a blockchain.{{cite web|access-date=2022-02-16|date=2021-04-29|format=PDF|language=en|publisher=Banque de France|title=Experiment on the use of Central Bank Digital Currency|url=https://www.banque-france.fr/sites/default/files/medias/documents/210429-press-release-mnbc.pdf}}

After preliminary planning and presenting public consultation results in early 2021,{{cite web |date=April 2021 |title=Bericht des Eurosystems über das öffentliche Konsultationsverfahren zu einem digitalen Euro |url=https://www.ecb.europa.eu/pub/pdf/other/Eurosystem_report_on_the_public_consultation_on_a_digital_euro~539fa8cd8d.de.pdf |access-date=2022-02-16 |publisher=Europäische Zentralbank {{!}} Eurosystem |format=PDF}} the ECB launched the digital euro project in July 2021 to prepare for its potential introduction.{{cite web|access-date=2022-02-16|date=2021-07-15|publisher=Deutsche Bundesbank {{!}} Eurosystem|title=Das Eurosystem startet Projekt zum digitalen Euro|url=https://www.bundesbank.de/de/aufgaben/themen/das-eurosystem-startet-projekt-zum-digitalen-euro-869458}} No technical barriers were identified during the preliminary planning. The research, which is scheduled to run until autumn 2023, aims to shed light on the distribution to merchants and citizens, the impact on markets and the necessary European legislation. No preliminary decision has therefore been taken on the introduction of the digital euro.{{cite web|access-date=2021-08-03|date=2021-07-14|publisher=Europäische Zentralbank|title=Das Eurosystem startet Projekt zum digitalen Euro|url=https://www.ecb.europa.eu/press/pr/date/2021/html/ecb.pr210714~d99198ea23.de.html|website=PRESSEMITTEILUNG}}

In September 2022, the ECB announces a collaboration with five companies (Amazon, CaixaBank, Worldline, EPI and Nexi) to develop potential user interfaces for the digital euro.{{cite web|access-date=2022-10-01|date=2022-09-16|publisher=Europäische Zentralbank - Eurosystem|title=ECB selects external companies for joint prototyping of user interfaces for a digital euro|url=https://www.ecb.europa.eu/paym/intro/news/html/ecb.mipnews220916.de.html}}

Burkhard Balz, a member of the Bundesbank's Executive Board, sees the digital euro not least as a means of strengthening European sovereignty in payments. In his view, the digital euro could be designed to support programmable payments in a highly automated environment.{{cite web|access-date=2022-08-03|date=2022-07-19|publisher=Handelsblatt|title=Bundesbank: Digital-Euro würde Souveränität Europas im Zahlungsverkehr stärken|url=https://www.handelsblatt.com/finanzen/geldpolitik/zahlungsmittel-bundesbank-digital-euro-wuerde-souveraenitaet-europas-im-zahlungsverkehr-staerken/28519736.html}}

The first "Progress on the investigation phase of a digital euro" report was published by the ECB in September 2022.{{cite web|access-date=2023-01-07|date=September 2022|publisher=ECB {{!}} Eurosystem|title=Progress on the investigation phase of a digital euro|url=https://www.ecb.europa.eu/paym/digital_euro/investigation/governance/shared/files/ecb.degov220929.en.pdf?8eec0678b57e98372a7ae6b59047604b}}

Speaking at the conference "Towards a legislative framework enabling a digital euro for citizens and businesses" held in Brussels in early November 2022, Christine Lagarde, President of the European Central Bank, reiterated that the digital euro is not a stand-alone project limited to the area of payments. Rather, it is a cross-policy and truly European initiative that has the potential to have an impact on society as a whole.{{cite web|access-date=2022-11-10|author=Christine Lagarde|date=2022-11-08|publisher=BIS - Bank for International Settlements|title=Digital euro – a common European project|url=https://www.bis.org/review/r221108a.htm}}

In December 2022, the ECB published the second progress report on the investigation phase.{{cite web|access-date=2023-01-07|date=2022-12-21|publisher=ECB {{!}} Eurosystem|title=ECB publishes second progress report on the digital euro investigation phase|url=https://www.ecb.europa.eu/paym/intro/news/html/ecb.mipnews221221.en.html}}

In January 2023, the ECB invited experts in the field of payments/finance to express their interest in contributing to the development of a set of rules for the digital euro.{{cite web|access-date=2023-01-07|date=2023-01-03|publisher=European Central Bank {{!}} Eurosystem|title=Call for expressions of interest in participation in the digital euro scheme Rulebook Development Group|url=https://www.ecb.europa.eu/paym/intro/news/html/ecb.mipnews230103.en.html}}

At the end of May 2023, the ECB published the results of a market research and prototyping project. The market research had shown that there was a sufficiently large pool of European vendors capable of developing digital euro solutions. It had also shown that different types of architectural and technological design options were available to develop a technical solution for a digital euro. The prototyping project involved the integration of five user interfaces developed by different vendors for each use case (front-end prototypes) and a settlement system designed and developed by the Eurosystem (back-end prototype). Different design options were tested to determine whether they could be technically implemented and integrated into the Eurosystem's settlement system. The tests showed that it would be possible to integrate a digital euro smoothly into the existing payment landscape, while leaving room for the market to use innovative features and technologies in the dissemination of a digital euro. The results also confirmed that, in principle, a digital euro could function both online and offline using different technical concepts. The question remains whether an offline solution that meets the Eurosystem's requirements and achieves the necessary scale can be implemented in the short to medium term using existing technology.{{cite web|access-date=2023-05-28|date=2023-05-26|language=en|publisher=Europäische Zentralbank - Eurosystem|title=Market research and prototyping exercise confirm feasibility of technical solutions and user interfaces for a digital euro|url=https://www.ecb.europa.eu/paym/intro/news/html/ecb.mipnews230526.de.html}}

On 18 October 2023 the ECB announced that a decision had been made to move forward with preparation phase, including a public pilot and aiming for a possible launch by 2025-2026.{{cite news |title=Eurosystem proceeds to next phase of digital euro project |url=https://www.ecb.europa.eu/press/pr/date/2023/html/ecb.pr231018~111a014ae7.en.html |agency=ECB}}

In December 2024, the ECB released its second progress report on the digital euro project, detailing advancements made between May and October 2024. During this period, the Rulebook Development Group (RDG) completed a review of the initial draft of the rulebook, addressing approximately 2,500 comments. Subsequently, seven new RDG workstreams were initiated to focus on critical areas such as minimum user experience standards, risk management, and implementation specifications. These efforts aim to refine the digital euro's framework, ensuring it meets the Eurosystem's objectives and aligns with legislative developments within the European Union.{{Cite journal |last=Bank |first=European Central |date=2024-12-02 |title=Progress on the preparation phase of a digital euro - Second progress report |url=https://www.ecb.europa.eu/euro/digital_euro/progress/html/ecb.deprp202412.en.html#toc2 |language=en |doi=10.2866/7620092 |issn=2812-2682}}

On 31 January 2025, ECB President Cristine LaGarde and European Commission President Ursula von der Leyen published an op-ed in which they cited the digital euro project as part of an effort to keep Europe at the forefront of digital payment technologies.{{Cite news |date=2025-01-31 |title=Lagarde and Von der Leyen: Europe has got the message on change |url=https://www.ft.com/content/fba6b27a-3a72-4451-8c75-ea8533c62681 |access-date=2025-01-31 |work=Financial Times}}

The Governing Council will make a decision by the end of 2025 on whether to proceed to the next stage of planning for a digital euro.{{Cite report |date=2024-06-24 |title=Progress on the preparation phase of a digital euro - First progress report |url=https://www.ecb.europa.eu/euro/digital_euro/progress/html/ecb.deprp202406.en.html |publisher=European Central Bank|doi=10.2866/10580}}

The Verbraucherzentrale Bundesverband (Public German Consumer Protection Organisation) sees the digital euro as a public good and thus an opportunity to make digital payments more consumer-oriented.{{cite web|access-date=2022-03-07|date=2021-07-30|format=PDF|publisher=Verbraucherzentrale Bundesverband|title=Der digitale Euro. Für Privatsphäre, Unabhängigkeit und Teilhabe im digitalen Zahlungsverkehr|url=https://www.vzbv.de/sites/default/files/2021-08/210730_Digitaler_Euro_Forderungspapier_final.pdf}}

The German Informatics Society (GI) sees the introduction of a digital euro and the simultaneous decline of cash as a threat to informational self-determination and privacy; there is a danger of the "Gläserner Mensch" (German metaphor for data protection, representing the complete "screening" of people and their behavior by a monitoring state, which is perceived as negative).{{cite web|access-date=2023-01-07|date=2022-11-22|publisher=Gesellschaft für Informatik|title=Digitale Währungen schaffen gläserne Menschen|url=https://gi.de/meldung/digitale-waehrungen-schaffen-glaeserne-menschen}}

From the perspective of the German Banking Industry Committee, the global trend toward central bank digital currency is unmistakable and represents both an opportunity and a challenge. The planned introduction of a digital euro is seen as an important contribution to the digitalization of the economy and society and to securing Europe's sovereignty and competitiveness. The digital money ecosystem proposed in a policy paper is intended to go beyond digital cash and consists of three elements:{{cite web|access-date=2022-03-04|date=2021-07-05|publisher=Die Deutsche Kreditwirtschaft|title=Deutsche Kreditwirtschaft legt Grundlagenpapier für "digitalen Euro" vor – EZB muss über digitales Bargeld hinausdenken|url=https://die-dk.de/themen/pressemitteilungen/dk-legt-grundlagenpapier-fur-digitalen-euro-vor/}}{{cite web|access-date=2022-03-04|date=2021-07-05|format=PDF|publisher=Die Deutsche Kreditwirtschaft|title=Europa braucht neues Geld – Das Ökosystem aus CBDC, Giralgeldtoken und Triggerlösung|url=https://die-dk.de/media/files/20210625_DK_Ergebnisdokument_DE_mrCkDI3.pdf}}

• Retail CBDC for personal use
• Wholesale CBDC for banks and savings banks
• Bank money tokens{{cite web|access-date=2022-03-04|date=2021-07-14|publisher=Bundesverband deutscher Banken|title=Digitaler Euro und Giralgeldtoken: Europas Geld von morgen|url=https://bankenverband.de/blog/digitaler-euro-und-giralgeldtoken-europas-geld-von-morgen/}} for industrial use

The Association of German Banks supports the introduction of a digital euro. In a position paper published in February 2023, the private banks emphasize the evolution of cash, their role in its issuance, its openness to innovation, and their desire to minimize the risks of its introduction. Among the risks, the private banks specifically mention those affecting their business (disintermediation, diminishing returns, weakening of their customer relationship) and that a weakening of their investment capabilities could lead to the failure of the digital euro.{{cite web|access-date=2023-02-13|author=Tobias Tenner, Albrecht Wallraf, Marek Jessen|date=2023-02-06|publisher=Bundesverband deutscher Banken|title=Positionspapier "Digitaler Euro - als nächster evolutionärer Schritt des Geldes"|url=https://bankenverband.de/themen/positionspapier-digitaler-euro-als-nachster-evolutionarer-schritt-des-geldes/}}

The Bundesverband der Deutschen Volksbanken und Raiffeisenbanken (BdV) welcomes the ECB's plans for a digital euro, but criticizes that the needs of the economy for a future digital payment method have not yet been sufficiently taken into account.{{cite web|access-date=2022-03-04|date=2022-02-28|publisher=Bundesverband der Deutschen Volksbanken und Raiffeisenbanken|title=BVR für Schaffung eines innovativen Ökosystems digitaler Geldformen / Euro-Kryptogeld für Wirtschaft sollte von Banken angeboten werden|url=https://www.bvr.de/Presse/Pressemitteilungen/BVR_fuer_Schaffung_eines_innovativen_Oekosystems_digitaler_Geldformen_Euro_Kryptogeld_fuer_Wirtschaft_sollte_von_Banken_angeboten_werden}}{{cite web|access-date=2022-03-04|author=Andreas Bley|date=2022-02-23|format=PDF|publisher=BVR Research|title=Wirtschaft braucht anderen digitalen Euro als Bürgerinnen und Bürger|url=https://www.bvr.de/p.nsf/0/37FFA00A7718A006C12587F2003307F2/$file/BVR_VolkswirtschaftKompakt_Ausgabe_2-2022.pdf}}{{cite web|access-date=2023-03-11|date=February 2023|publisher=Bundesverband der Deutschen Volksbanken und Raiffeisenbanken (BVR)|title=BVR-Position - Die Digitalisierung des Euro: Chancen nutzen, Risiken begrenzen. Zielbild für ein europäisches Geldsystem der Zukunft|url=https://www.bvr.de/p.nsf/0/68869EA0525FA6EBC125894100601587/$file/BVR%20Die%20Digitalisierung%20des%20Euro_Chancen%20nutzen,%20Risiken%20begrenzen.pdf}}

In a position paper published at the end of September 2022, the Bundesverband der Deutschen Industrie (BDI, Federation of German Industries) warns that the needs of the industry must be taken into account when introducing a digital euro. The programmability of payments is a key demand.{{cite web|access-date=2023-02-27|date=2020-12-21|publisher=Deutsche Bundesbank und BMF|title=Zunehmender Bedarf an programmierbaren Zahlungen|url=https://www.bundesbank.de/de/presse/pressenotizen/zunehmender-bedarf-an-programmierbaren-zahlungen-855056}}{{cite web|access-date=2022-10-01|date=2022-09-28|publisher=Bundesverband der Deutschen Industrie e. V.|title=Digitaler Euro. Industriebedarfe bei Etablierung nicht vernachlässigen|url=https://bdi.eu/publikation/news/digitaler-euro-innovation-digitalisierung-waehrung/}}

For Paschal Donohoe, president of the Eurogroup, a body of finance ministers from euro member states, the digital euro project is about maintaining the link between citizens and central bank money: as central bank money, the digital euro would be convertible one-to-one into euro banknotes.{{cite web|access-date=2023-03-14|author=Paschal Donohue|date=2023-03-14|title=The possibility of the digital euro. What makes this project any different, or better, than other innovative digital solutions already available? The answer lies in 'central bank money'|url=https://www.politico.eu/article/finance-banking-the-digital-euro-cryptocurrency-central-banks-currency/|website=politico.eu}}

Unlike the industry, the Eurogroup does not want the digital euro to be equipped with additional functions.{{cite web|access-date=2023-02-27|author=Stefan Krempl|date=2023-01-17|title=EU-Finanzminister: Digitaler Euro soll nicht programmierbar sein|url=https://www.heise.de/news/EU-Finanzminister-Digitaler-Euro-soll-nicht-programmierbar-sein-7462003.html|website=heise.de}}{{cite web|access-date=2023-02-27|author=Euro-Gruppe Pressemitteilung|date=2023-01-16|publisher=Europäischer Rat, Rat der Europäischen Union|title=Eurogroup statement on the digital euro project, 16th January 2023|url=https://www.consilium.europa.eu/de/press/press-releases/2023/01/16/eurogroup-statement-on-the-digital-euro-project-16-january-2023/}}

The European Commission has submitted a legislative proposal for the introduction of a digital euro that should be made available as a legal tender not only to banks, but above all to the general public.{{CELEX|id=52023PC0369|text=Proposal for a REGULATION OF THE EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT AND OF THE COUNCIL on the establishment of the digital euro}} Presented on 28 June 2023, this proposal outlines the fundamental requirements for its possible implementation.{{cite web|access-date=2024-11-12|date=2023-06-16|title=Der digitale Euro soll gesetzliches Zahlungsmittel werden – das sind die Pläne der EU|language=de|url=https://www.it-finanzmagazin.de/eu-kommission-plant-gesetzentwurf-so-soll-die-digitale-zentralbankwaehrung-aussehen-154478/|website=it-finanzmagazin.de}}{{cite web|access-date=2024-11-12|first=János|last=Allenbach-Ammann|date=2023-06-15|title=EU-Kommission will kostenlosen digitalen Euro für alle|language=de|url=https://www.euractiv.de/section/finanzen-und-wirtschaft/news/eu-kommission-will-kostenlosen-digitalen-euro-fuer-alle/|website=euractiv.de}}{{cite web|access-date=2024-11-12|first=Jan |last=Diesteldorf|date=2023-06-15|publisher=Süddeutsche Zeitung|title=EU-Pläne: Der digitale Euro kommt - das steckt dahinter|language=de|url=https://www.sueddeutsche.de/wirtschaft/eu-euro-bargeld-krypto-1.5935181}} However, the final decision lies with EU member states and the European Parliament, who are currently {{mdash}}12 November 2024{{mdash}} negotiating this proposal.{{CELEX|id=52023PC0369|tab=HIS|text=Procedure 2023/0212/COD}} If the legislation is approved, the European Central Bank (ECB) will further develop the technical and operational aspects, aiming to create a secure and reliable digital euro, available alongside cash and traditional bank payment accounts.

Additionally, the proposal aims to protect user privacy, similar to cash, without extra oversight of individual transactions by the governments.{{cite web|access-date=2024-11-12|first=Stefan |last=Krempl|date=2023-06-15|title=Digitaler Euro: Pseudonymisierung soll den gläsernen Kunden verhindern|language=de|url=https://www.heise.de/news/Digitaler-Euro-Pseudonymisierung-soll-den-glaesernen-Kunden-verhindern-9189325.html|website=heise.de}} For security purposes, there are considerations for limits on the amount individuals can hold in digital euros. All of this forms part of a preparatory phase that may take several years, with an expected implementation date from 2028 if the legislation is approved.

• Nicola Bilotta, Erwin Voloder: Going Global: The Political Ambition and Economic Reality of the (Digital) Euro, in: Nicola Bilotta, Fabrizio Botti (Hrsg.): Digitalization and Geopolitics: Catalytic Forces in the (Future) International Monetary System, Edizioni Nuova Cultura 2023, ISBN 978-8-83365-572-7.
• Annelieke A. M. Mooij: A digital euro for everyone. Can the European System of Central Banks introduce general purpose CBDC as part of its economic mandate? In: Journal of Banking Regulation. 2022. doi:10.1057/s41261-021-00186-w
• Annelieke A. M. Mooij: European Central Bank Digital Currency: the digital euro – What design of the digital euro is possible within the European Central Bank's legal framework? BRIDGE Network – Working Paper 14, May 2021.
• Peter Bofinger: Grundzüge der Volkswirtschaftslehre. 5. edition. Pearson, Munich 2019, ISBN 978-3-86894-368-9, p. 561–578, Chapter 28: Digitalisierung des Geldes und die Zukunft der Geldpolitik.
• Isabella Lindner: The Euro on its way to internationalization – Potential Geopolitical Impacts. In: Klemens H. Fischer (Publisher): European Security Put to the Test. Perspectives and Challenges for the Next Decade. (= AIES Beiträge zur Europa- und Sicherheitspolitik. Volume 6). Nomos Verlag, 2021, ISBN 978-3-8487-8558-2.
• Thomas Mayer: A Digital Euro to Compete with Libra. In: The Economists' Voice. Volume 16, Issue 1, 2019.
• Philipp Sandner, Jonas Groß: Der digitale Euro aus geopolitischer Perspektive. In: Johannes Beermann (Hrsg.): 20 Jahre Euro. Zur Zukunft unseres Geldes. Siedler, Munich 2022, ISBN 978-3-8275-0165-3, P. 409–436. 

{{Reflist}}

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• [https://www.kas.de/documents/252038/11055681/Der+digitale+Euro+-+Einfluss+auf+die+deutsche+Wirtschaft.pdf/f06d51c7-cb78-911f-a37c-cb3849a61e81 Philipp Sandner, Jonas Groß, Lena Grale: Der digitale Euro. Einfluss auf die deutsche Wirtschaft, Konrad-Adenauer-Stiftung e.V. 2021]
• [https://www.bitkom.org/sites/main/files/2020-04/200423_infopapier_digitaler-euro-auf-der-blockchain.pdf Digitaler Euro auf der Blockchain. Infopapier, bitkom 2020]
• [https://www.europarl.europa.eu/RegData/etudes/STUD/2022/703337/IPOL_STU(2022)703337_EN.pdf Markus Brunnermeier, Jean-Pierre Landau: The digital euro: policy implications and perspectives, Policy Department for Economic, Scientific and Quality of Life Policies Directorate-General for Internal Policies, January 2022]
• [https://cbdcmanifesto.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/10/20221011-CBDC-Manifesto-final.pdf CBDC Manifesto, Digital Euro Association/CBDC ThinkTank, 2022-10-11]

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