electroactive polymer

The field of EAPs emerged back in 1880, when Wilhelm Röntgen designed an experiment in which he tested the effect of an electrostatic field on the mechanical properties of a stripe of natural rubber.{{Cite journal |last1= Keplinger |first1=Christoph |last2= Kaltenbrunner |first2=Martin |last3=Arnold |first3=Nikita |last4=Bauer |first4= Siegfried |date= 2010-03-09 |title= Röntgen's electrode-free elastomer actuators without electromechanical pull-in instability |journal= Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |volume=107 |issue=10 |pages=4505–4510 |doi= 10.1073/pnas.0913461107 |issn=0027-8424 |pmc=2825178 |pmid= 20173097|bibcode=2010PNAS..107.4505K |doi-access=free }} The rubber stripe was fixed at one end and was attached to a mass at the other. Electric charges were then sprayed onto the rubber, and it was observed that the length changed. It was in 1925 that the first piezoelectric polymer was discovered (Electret). Electret was formed by combining carnauba wax, rosin and beeswax, and then cooling the solution while it is subject to an applied DC electrical bias. The mixture would then solidify into a polymeric material that exhibited a piezoelectric effect.

Polymers that respond to environmental conditions, other than an applied electric current, have also been a large part of this area of study. In 1949 Katchalsky et al. demonstrated that when collagen filaments are dipped in acid or alkali solutions, they would respond with a change in volume.{{cite web |url= http://electrochem.cwru.edu/encycl/art-p02-elact-pol.htm |title=Electrochemistry Encyclopedia: Electroactive Polymers (EAP) |url-status=dead|archive-url=https://archive.today/20121212015419/http://electrochem.cwru.edu/encycl/art-p02-elact-pol.htm |archive-date= 2012-12-12}} The collagen filaments were found to expand in an acidic solution and contract in an alkali solution. Although other stimuli (such as pH) have been investigated, due to its ease and practicality most research has been devoted to developing polymers that respond to electrical stimuli in order to mimic biological systems.

The next major breakthrough in EAPs took place in the late 1960s. In 1969 Kawai demonstrated that polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) exhibits a large piezoelectric effect. This sparked research interest in developing other polymers that would show a similar effect. In 1977 the first electrically conducting polymers were discovered by Hideki Shirakawa et al.{{cite journal |author= Finkenstadt, Victoria L. |title=Natural polysaccharides as electroactive polymers |journal=Appl Microbiol Biotechnol |year=2005 |volume=67 |pmid= 15724215 |issue=6 |pages= 735–745 |doi= 10.1007/s00253-005-1931-4|s2cid=22935320 }} Shirakawa, along with Alan MacDiarmid and Alan Heeger, demonstrated that polyacetylene was electrically conductive, and that by doping it with iodine vapor, they could enhance its conductivity by 8 orders of magnitude. Thus the conductance was close to that of a metal. By the late 1980s a number of other polymers had been shown to exhibit a piezoelectric effect or were demonstrated to be conductive.

In the early 1990s, ionic polymer-metal composites (IPMCs) were developed and shown to exhibit electroactive properties far superior to previous EAPs. The major advantage of IPMCs was that they were able to show activation (deformation) at voltages as low as 1 or 2 volts. This is orders of magnitude less than any previous EAP. Not only was the activation energy for these materials much lower, but they could also undergo much larger deformations. IPMCs were shown to exhibit anywhere up to 380% strain, orders of magnitude larger than previously developed EAPs.

In 1999, Yoseph Bar-Cohen proposed the Armwrestling Match of EAP Robotic Arm Against Human Challenge. This was a challenge in which research groups around the world competed to design a robotic arm consisting of EAP muscles that could defeat a human in an arm wrestling match. The first challenge was held at the Electroactive Polymer Actuators and Devices Conference in 2005. Another major milestone of the field is that the first commercially developed device including EAPs as an artificial muscle was produced in 2002 by Eamex in Japan. This device was a fish that was able to swim on its own, moving its tail using an EAP muscle. But the progress in practical development has not been satisfactory.{{cite journal |author=Eftekhari, Ali |title=Comment on "A Linear Actuation of Polymeric Nanofibrous Bundle for Artificial Muscles" |journal= Chemistry of Materials |year=2010 |volume=22 |issue=8 |pages=2689–2690 |doi= 10.1021/cm903343t|doi-access=free }}

DARPA-funded research in the 1990s at SRI International and led by Ron Pelrine developed an electroactive polymer using silicone and acrylic polymers; the technology was spun off into the company Artificial Muscle in 2003, with industrial production beginning in 2008.{{cite web|url=http://www.avsusergroups.org/tfug_pdfs/2008_2feldman.pdf|title=Electroactive Polymer Artificial Muscle - A Polymer Based Generator?|first=Randy|last=Feldman|work=Thin Film Users Group|publisher=Northern California Chapter of the American Vacuum Society|date=2008-02-20|access-date=2012-07-16|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161206183425/http://www.avsusergroups.org/tfug_pdfs/2008_2feldman.pdf|archive-date=2016-12-06|url-status=dead}} In 2010, Artificial Muscle became a subsidiary of Bayer MaterialScience.{{cite web|url=http://www.sri.com/engage/products-solutions/epam|title=Electroactive Polymer "Artificial Muscle"|publisher=SRI International|access-date=2012-07-16}}

EAPs can have several configurations, but are generally divided in two principal classes: Dielectric and Ionic.

Dielectric EAPs are materials in which actuation is caused by electrostatic forces between two electrodes which squeeze the polymer. Dielectric elastomers are capable of very high strains and are fundamentally a capacitor that changes its capacitance when a voltage is applied by allowing the polymer to compress in thickness and expand in area due to the electric field. This type of EAP typically requires a large actuation voltage to produce high electric fields (hundreds to thousands of volts), but very low electrical power consumption. Dielectric EAPs require no power to keep the actuator at a given position. Examples are electrostrictive polymers and dielectric elastomers.

image:Polyvinylidene fluoride.png

Ferroelectric polymers are a group of crystalline polar polymers that are also ferroelectric, meaning that they maintain a permanent electric polarization that can be reversed, or switched, in an external electric field."Ferroelectric Properties of Vinylidene Fluoride Copolymers," by T. Furukawa, in Phase Transitions, Vol. 18, pp. 143-211 (1989).{{cite book |last1= Nalwa |first1= H. |title= Ferroelectric Polymers |edition= First |year= 1995 |publisher= Marcel Dekker, INC. |location= New York |isbn= 978-0-8247-9468-2}} Ferroelectric polymers, such as polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF), are used in acoustic transducers and electromechanical actuators because of their inherent piezoelectric response, and as heat sensors because of their inherent pyroelectric response.{{cite journal | doi=10.1126/science.220.4602.1115 | author=Lovinger, A. J. | s2cid=45870679 | title=Ferroelectric polymers. | journal=Science | year=1983 | volume=220 | issue=4602 | pages=1115–1121 | pmid=17818472| bibcode=1983Sci...220.1115L }}

image:Electrostrictive Graft PolymerII.PNG

Electrostrictive graft polymers consist of flexible backbone chains with branching side chains. The side chains on neighboring backbone polymers cross link and form crystal units. The backbone and side chain crystal units can then form polarized monomers, which contain atoms with partial charges and generate dipole moments.{{cite journal|last=Wang|first=Youqi|author2=Changjie Sun |author3=Eric Zhou |author4=Ji Su |year=2004|title=Deformation Mechanisms of Electrostrictive Graft Elastomers|journal=Smart Materials and Structures|publisher=Institute of Physics Publishing|volume=13|issue=6|pages=1407–1413|issn=0964-1726 |doi=10.1088/0964-1726/13/6/011|bibcode=2004SMaS...13.1407W|s2cid=250859649 }}

When an electrical field is applied, a force is applied to each partial charge, which causes rotation of the whole polymer unit. This rotation causes electrostrictive strain and deformation of the polymer.

Main-chain liquid crystalline polymers have mesogenic groups linked to each other by a flexible spacer. The mesogens within a backbone form the mesophase structure, causing the polymer itself to adopt a conformation compatible with the structure of the mesophase. The direct coupling of the liquid crystalline order with the polymer conformation has given main-chain liquid crystalline elastomers a large amount of interest.{{cite journal|last=Ishige|first=Ryohei|author2=Masatoshi Tokita |author3=Yu Naito |author4=Chun Ying Zhang |author5=Junji Watanabe |date=January 22, 2008|title=Unusual Formation of Smectic A Structure in Cross-Linked Monodomain Elastomer of Main-Chain LC Polyester with 3-Methylpentane Spacer|journal=Macromolecules|publisher=American Chemical Society|volume=41|issue=7|pages=2671–2676|doi=10.1021/ma702686c|bibcode=2008MaMol..41.2671I}} The synthesis of highly oriented elastomers leads to a large strain thermal actuation along the polymer chain direction, with temperature variation resulting in unique mechanical properties and potential applications as mechanical actuators.

Ionic EAPs are polymers in which actuation is caused by the displacement of ions inside the polymer. Only a few volts are needed for actuation, but the ionic flow implies that higher electrical power is needed for actuation, and energy is needed to keep the actuator at a given position.

Examples of ionic EAPs are conductive polymers, ionic polymer-metal composites (IPMCs), and responsive gels. Yet another example is a Bucky gel actuator, which is a polymer-supported layer of polyelectrolyte material consisting of an ionic liquid sandwiched between two electrode layers, which is then a gel of ionic liquid containing single-wall carbon nanotubes.{{cite journal|doi=10.1557/mrs2008.47|author1=Qu, L. |author2=Peng, Q. |author3=Dai, L. |author4=Spinks, G. M. |author5=Wallace, G. G. |author6=Baughman, R. H. |title=Carbon Nanotube Electroactive Polymer Materials: Opportunities and Challenges|journal=MRS Bulletin|year=2008|volume=33|issue=3|pages=215–224|s2cid=138644259 |url=https://ro.uow.edu.au/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=6020&context=engpapers }}{{ ISSN|0883-7694}} The name comes from the similarity of the gel to the paper that can be made by filtering carbon nanotubes, the so-called buckypaper.Fukushima, Takanori; Kinji Asaka, Atsuko Kosaka, Takuzo Aida (2005). [https://archive.today/20120919143836/http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/abstract/110429473/ABSTRACT "Fully Plastic Actuator through Layer-by-Layer Casting with Ionic-Liquid-Based Bucky Gel".] Angewandte Chemie International, Edition Volume 44, Issue 16 2410.

{{Main|Electrorheological Fluid}}

Electrorheological fluids change viscosity when an electric field is applied. The fluid is a suspension of polymers in a low dielectric-constant liquid.{{cite book|last=Glass|first=J. Edward|author2=Schulz, Donald N. |author3=Zukosi, C.F |title=Polymers as Rheology Modifiers|publisher=American Chemical Society|date=May 13, 1991|series=ACS Symposium Series|volume=462|pages=2–17|chapter=1|isbn=9780841220096}} With the application of a large electric field the viscosity of the suspension increases. Potential applications of these fluids include shock absorbers, engine mounts and acoustic dampers.

{{Main|Ionic polymer-metal composite}}

Image:EAP-composite.png

Ionic polymer-metal composites consist of a thin ionomeric membrane with noble metal electrodes plated on its surface. It also has cations to balance the charge of the anions fixed to the polymer backbone.{{cite book|last=Nemat-Nasser|first=S.|author2=Thomas, C.|title=Electroactive Polymer (EAP) Actuators as Artificial Muscles-Reality, Potential and Challenges|editor=Yoseph Bar-Cohen|publisher=SPIE Press|year=2001|pages=139–191|chapter=6}} They are very active actuators that show very high deformation at low applied voltage and show low impedance. Ionic polymer-metal composites work through electrostatic attraction between the cationic counter ions and the cathode of the applied electric field. These types of polymers show the greatest promise for bio-mimetic uses as collagen fibers are essentially composed of natural charged ionic polymers.{{cite web|url=http://ndeaa.jpl.nasa.gov/nasa-nde/papers/spie98/SPIE98-mo.PDF|title=Ionic Polymer-Metal Composties (IPMC) As Biomimetic Sensors and Actuators|last=Shahinpoor|first=M.|author2=Y. Bar-Cohen|author3=T. Xue|author4=J. O. Simpson|author5=J. Smith|date=5 March 1996|publisher=SPIE|pages=17|access-date=6 April 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100528002145/http://ndeaa.jpl.nasa.gov/nasa-nde/papers/spie98/SPIE98-mo.PDF|archive-date=28 May 2010|url-status=dead}} Nafion and Flemion are commonly used ionic polymer metal composites.{{cite journal|doi=10.1557/mrs2008.44|author1=Park, I. S. |author2=Jung, K. |author3=Kim, D. |author4=Kim, S. M. |author5=Kim, K. J. |title=Physical Principles of Ionic Polymer–Metal Composites as Electroactive Actuators and Sensors|journal=MRS Bulletin|year=2008|volume=33|issue=3|pages=190–195|s2cid=135613424 }}{{ ISSN|0883-7694}}

Stimuli-responsive gels (hydrogels, when the swelling agent is an aqueous solution) are a special kind of swellable polymer networks with volume phase transition behaviour. These materials change reversibly their volume, optical, mechanical and other properties by very small alterations of certain physical (e.g. electric field, light, temperature) or chemical (concentrations) stimuli.Schneider, Hans-Jörg (ed.), 2015. [https://pubs.rsc.org/en/content/ebook/978-1-78262-242-0 Chemoresponsive Materials.] Royal Society of Chemistry, Cambridge. The volume change of these materials occurs by swelling/shrinking and is diffusion-based. Gels provide the biggest change in volume of solid-state materials.{{cite book |last1= Gerlach |first1= G. |last2= Arndt |first2= K.-F. |title= Hydrogel Sensors and Actuators |edition= First |year= 2009 |publisher= Springer |location= Berlin |isbn= 978-3-540-75644-6}} Combined with an excellent compatibility with micro-fabrication technologies, especially stimuli-responsive hydrogels are of strong increasing interest for microsystems with sensors and actuators. Current fields of research and application are chemical sensor systems, microfluidics and multimodal imaging systems.

Dielectric polymers are able to hold their induced displacement while activated under a DC voltage.{{cite journal |last=Bar-Cohen |first=Yoseph |author2= Kwang J. Kim |author3=Hyouk Ryeol Choi |author4=John D. W. Madden |s2cid=61500961 |year=2007 |title= Electroactive Polymer Materials |journal= Smart Materials and Structures |publisher= Institute of Physics Publishing |volume=16 |issue=2 |doi= 10.1088/0964-1726/16/2/E01|doi-access=free }} This allows dielectric polymers to be considered for robotic applications. These types of materials also have high mechanical energy density and can be operated in air without a major decrease in performance. However, dielectric polymers require very high activation fields (>10 V/μm) that are close to the breakdown level.

The activation of ionic polymers, on the other hand, requires only 1-2 volts. They however need to maintain wetness, though some polymers have been developed as self-contained encapsulated activators which allows their use in dry environments. Ionic polymers also have a low electromechanical coupling. They are however ideal for bio-mimetic devices.

While there are many different ways electroactive polymers can be characterized, only three will be addressed here: stress–strain curve, dynamic mechanical thermal analysis, and dielectric thermal analysis.

{{Main|Stress–strain curve}}

image:LCpolymersII.png

Stress strain curves provide information about the polymer's mechanical properties such as the brittleness, elasticity and yield strength of the polymer. This is done by providing a force to the polymer at a uniform rate and measuring the deformation that results.{{cite book|last=Cowie|first=J. M. G.|author2=Valerai Arrighi|title=Polymers: Chemistry and Physics of Modern Material|publisher=CRC Press|location=Florida|year=2008|edition=Third|pages=363–373|chapter=13|isbn=978-0-8493-9813-1}} This technique is useful for determining the type of material (brittle, tough, etc.), but it is a destructive technique as the stress is increased until the polymer fractures.

{{Main|Dynamic mechanical analysis}}

Dynamic mechanical analysis is a non destructive technique that is useful in understanding the mechanism of deformation at a molecular level. In DMTA a sinusoidal stress is applied to the polymer, and based on the polymer's deformation, the elastic modulus and damping characteristics are obtained (assuming the polymer is a damped harmonic oscillator). Elastic materials take the mechanical energy of the stress and convert it into potential energy which can later be recovered. An ideal spring will use all the potential energy to regain its original shape (no damping), while a liquid will use all the potential energy to flow, never returning to its original position or shape (high damping). A viscoeleastic polymer will exhibit a combination of both types of behavior.

{{Main|Dielectric thermal analysis}}

DETA is similar to DMTA, but instead of an alternating mechanical force an alternating electric field is applied. The applied field can lead to polarization of the sample, and if the polymer contains groups that have permanent dipoles, they will align with the electrical field. The permittivity can be measured from the change in amplitude and resolved into dielectric storage and loss components. The electric displacement field can also be measured by following the current. Once the field is removed, the dipoles will relax back into a random orientation.

Image:Artificial Muscle.png

EAP materials can be easily manufactured in various shapes due to the ease of processing many polymeric materials, making them very versatile materials. One potential application for EAPs is integration into microelectromechanical systems (MEMS) to produce smart actuators.

As the most prospective practical research direction, EAPs have been used in artificial muscles.{{cite book|last=Kim|first= K.J.|author2=Tadokoro, S.|title=Electroactive Polymers for Robotic Applications, Artificial Muscles and Sensors|publisher=Springer|location=London|year=2007|isbn=978-1-84628-371-0}} Their ability to emulate the operation of biological muscles with high fracture toughness, large actuation strain and inherent vibration damping draw the attention of scientists in this field. EAPs have even successfully been used to make a type of hand.

In recent years, "electro active polymers for refreshable Braille displays"{{cite web|url=http://spie.org/x37076.xml?ArticleID=x37076|title=Electroactive polymers for refreshable Braille displays|last=Bar-Cohen|first=Yoseph|date=11 September 2009|publisher=SPIE}} has emerged to aid the visually impaired in fast reading and computer assisted communication. This concept is based on using an EAP actuator configured in an array form. Rows of electrodes on one side of an EAP film and columns on the other activate individual elements in the array. Each element is mounted with a Braille dot and is lowered by applying a voltage across the thickness of the selected element, causing local thickness reduction. Under computer control, dots would be activated to create tactile patterns of highs and lows representing the information to be read.

File:Artificial skin.jpgVisual and tactile impressions of a virtual surface are displayed by a high resolution tactile display, a so-called "artificial skin".{{cite journal|doi=10.1002/adma.200802737|author1=Richter, A. |author2=Paschew, G. |s2cid=137163635 |title=Optoelectrothermic Control of Highly Integrated Polymer-Based MEMS Applied in an Artificial Skin|journal=Advanced Materials|year=2009|volume=21|issue=9|pages=979–983|bibcode=2009AdM....21..979R }} These monolithic devices consist of an array of thousands of multimodal modulators (actuator pixels) based on stimuli-responsive hydrogels. Each modulator is able to change individually their transmission, height and softness. Besides their possible use as graphic displays for visually impaired such displays are interesting as free programmable keys of touchpads and consoles.

EAP materials have huge potential for microfluidics, e.g. as drug delivery systems, microfluidic devices and lab-on-a-chip. A first microfluidic platform technology reported in the literature is based on stimuli-responsive gels. To avoid the electrolysis of water, hydrogel-based microfluidic devices are mainly based on temperature-responsive polymers with lower critical solution temperature (LCST) characteristics, which are controlled by an electrothermic interface. Two types of micropumps are known, a diffusion micropump and a displacement micropump.{{cite journal|doi=10.1039/B810256B |pmid=19190798 |author1=Richter, A. |author2=Klatt, S. |author3=Paschew, G. |author4=Klenke, C. |s2cid=28050680 |title=Micropumps operated by swelling and shrinking of temperature-sensitive hydrogels|journal=Lab on a Chip|year=2009|volume=9|issue=4 | pages=613–618}} Microvalves based on stimuli-responsive hydrogels show some advantageous properties such as particle tolerance, no leakage and outstanding pressure resistance.{{cite journal|doi=10.1109/JMEMS.2003.817898|author1=Richter, A. |author2=Kuckling, D. |author3=Howitz, S. |author4=Gehring, T |author5=Arndt, K.-F. |title=Electronically controllable microvalves based on smart hydrogels: magnitudes and potential applications|journal=Journal of Microelectromechanical Systems|year=2003|volume=12|issue=5|pages=748–753}}{{cite journal|doi=10.1021/ac026455j|author= Yu, C., Mutlu, S., Selvaganapathy, P. Mastrangelo, C. H., Svec, F., Fréchet, J. M. J. |s2cid= 23726246 |title= Flow control valves for analytical microfluidic chips without mechanical parts based on thermally responsive monolithic polymers|journal= Analytical Chemistry|year=2003|volume=75|issue=8|pages=1958–1961|pmid= 12713057 }}{{cite web|url=http://www.gesim.de/en/microfluidics/micro-valves/|title=Hydrogel Micro Valves|year=2009|publisher=GeSiM mbH|access-date=2013-09-13|archive-date=2015-10-09|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151009205250/http://www.gesim.de/en/microfluidics/micro-valves|url-status=dead}}

Besides these microfluidic standard components, the hydrogel platform provides also chemical sensors{{cite journal|doi=10.3390/s8010561|pmid=27879722 |author1=Richter, A. |author2=Paschew, G. |author3=Klatt, S. |author4=Lienig, J. |author5=Arndt, K.-F. |author6=Adler, H.-J. |title=Review on Hydrogel-based pH Sensors and Microsensors|journal= Sensors|year=2008|volume=8|issue=1|pages=561–581|pmc=3668326|bibcode=2008Senso...8..561R |doi-access=free }} and a novel class of microfluidic components, the chemical transistors (also referred as chemostat valves).{{cite journal|doi=10.1002/adma.200601989|author1=Richter, A. |author2=Türke, A. |author3=Pich, A. |s2cid=95750078 |title=Controlled Double-Sensitivity of Microgels Applied to Electronically Adjustable Chemostats|journal= Advanced Materials|year=2007|volume=19|issue=8|pages=1109–1112|bibcode=2007AdM....19.1109R }} These devices regulate a liquid flow if a threshold concentration of a certain chemical is reached. Chemical transistors form the basis of microchemomechanical fluidic integrated circuits. "Chemical ICs" process exclusively chemical information, are energy-self-powered, operate automatically and are suitable for large-scale integration.{{cite journal|doi=10.1039/C2LC40617A|pmid= 23038405|author= Greiner, R., Allerdißen, M., Voigt, A., Richter A.|title=Fluidic microchemomechanical integrated circuits processing chemical information|journal=Lab on a Chip|year=2012|volume=12|issue=23|pages=5034–5044|url=http://tud.qucosa.de/api/qucosa%3A27798/attachment/ATT-0/}}

Another microfluidic platform is based on ionomeric materials. Pumps made from that material could offer low voltage (battery) operation, extremely low noise signature, high system efficiency, and highly accurate control of flow rate.{{cite web|url=http://www.discover-technologies.com/applications.html|title=Electroactive Polymer Pumps|date=7 June 2009|publisher=Discover technologies Inc|access-date=9 April 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100126093602/http://www.discover-technologies.com/applications.html|archive-date=26 January 2010|url-status=dead}}

Another technology that can benefit from the unique properties of EAP actuators is optical membranes. Due to their low modulus, the mechanical impedance of the actuators, they are well-matched to common optical membrane materials. Also, a single EAP actuator is capable of generating displacements that range from micrometers to centimeters. For this reason, these materials can be used for static shape correction and jitter suppression. These actuators could also be used to correct for optical aberrations due to atmospheric interference.{{cite web|url=http://www.discover-technologies.com/applications.html|title=Adaptive Membrane Optics|date=7 June 2009|publisher=Discover technologies Inc|access-date=9 April 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100126093602/http://www.discover-technologies.com/applications.html|archive-date=26 January 2010|url-status=dead}}

Since these materials exhibit excellent electroactive character, EAP materials show potential in biomimetic-robot research, stress sensors and acoustics field, which will make EAPs become a more attractive study topic in the near future. They have been used for various actuators such as face muscles and arm muscles in humanoid robots.http://eap.jpl.nasa.gov/ NASA WorldWide Electroactive Polymer Actuators Webhub

The field of EAPs is far from mature, which leaves several issues that still need to be worked on. The performance and long-term stability of the EAP should be improved by designing a water impermeable surface. This will prevent the evaporation of water contained in the EAP, and also reduce the potential loss of the positive counter ions when the EAP is operating submerged in an aqueous environment. Improved surface conductivity should be explored using methods to produce a defect-free conductive surface. This could possibly be done using metal vapor deposition or other doping methods. It may also be possible to utilize conductive polymers to form a thick conductive layer. Heat resistant EAP would be desirable to allow operation at higher voltages without damaging the internal structure of the EAP due to the generation of heat in the EAP composite. Development of EAPs in different configurations (e.g., fibers and fiber bundles), would also be beneficial, in order to increase the range of possible modes of motion.

• Pneumatic artificial muscles
• Artificial muscles

{{reflist|30em}}

• [https://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/0819452971/ Electroactive polymer (EAP) actuators as artificial muscles – reality, potential and challenges], {{ISBN|978-0819452979}}
• [http://ndeaa.jpl.nasa.gov/ndeaa-pub/AIAA/AIAA-EAP-review-2001.pdf Electroactive Polymers as Artificial Muscles Reality and Challenges]
• [http://rsfs.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/royfocus/6/4/20160026.full.pdf Electroactive polymers for sensing]

{{DEFAULTSORT:Electroactive Polymers}}

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