environment of China

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The environment of China ({{lang-zh|s=中国的环境}}) comprises diverse geology, rich biota, and varied climates, ranging from arid deserts to subtropical forests. However, rapid industrialization and lax environmental oversight have caused many environmental issues and large-scale pollution, including severe air pollution.{{cite news|title=As Pollution Worsens in China, Solutions Succumb to Infighting|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2013/03/22/world/asia/as-chinas-environmental-woes-worsen-infighting-emerges-as-biggest-obstacle.html|access-date=March 22, 2013|newspaper=The New York Times|date=March 21, 2013|author=Edward Wong}}

China faces critical issues such as some of the highest levels of air pollution globally, with fine particulate matter (PM_2.5 and PM₁₀) linked to adverse health effects and increased mortality. Additionally, climate change has intensified extreme weather events, rising temperatures, further impacting ecosystems and human populations. In response, the Chinese government has implemented extensive environmental policies, such as the Air Pollution Prevention and Control Action Plan and the Ecological Civilization Initiative, along with carbon neutrality goal to combat climate change.

Geology

Biota

= Wildlife =

File:1 panda trio sichuan china 2011.jpg.]]

= Flora =

Climate

=Climate change=

{{Excerpt|Climate change in China}}In 2024, China yet again recorded its hottest year on record, with an average temperature of 10.92 °C, or 51.66 degrees Fahrenheit.{{Cite web |last=Davies |first=Sam |last2=Shanghai |first2=with Jing Xuan Teng in |title=China says 2024 was its hottest year on record |url=https://phys.org/news/2025-01-china-hottest-year-weather-agency.html |access-date=2025-03-09 |website=phys.org |language=en}}

Protected areas of China

= UNESCO World Heritage Sites =

Within China’s protected areas are some United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) World Heritage sites. According to the UNESCO World Heritage website, these sites are “designation for places on Earth that are of outstanding universal value to humanity and as such, have been inscribed on the World Heritage List to be protected for future generations to appreciate and enjoy.”{{Cite web |last=Centre |first=UNESCO World Heritage |title=What is World Heritage? - Questions and Answers |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/faq/19 |access-date=2025-03-09 |website=UNESCO World Heritage Centre |language=en}}

China alone has 59 sites, including, but not limited to: The Great Wall of China, The Imperial Palace, and The Temple of Heaven. These are cultural sites, and are protected because of their significant contributions to China’s culture. Fifteen of these fifty nine sites, or 23.7% of these sites are categorized as “natural” sites, as opposed to “cultural” or “mixed” sites.These natural sites include famous rivers (Three Parallel Rivers of Yunnan), animal sanctuaries (Sichuan Giant Panda Sanctuary), and “historic and interest areas” (Jiuzhaigou Valley Scenic and Historic Interest Area). Fujian’s Wuyi Mountains, as listed above, are categorized as “mixed.” {{Cite web |last=UNESCO World Heritage Centre |title=China - UNESCO World Heritage Convention |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/statesparties/cn |access-date=2025-03-09 |website=whc.unesco.org |language=en}}

The UNESCO World Heritage Site list is always being updated, as countries can nominate additional sites to be included as a UNESCO World Heritage Site. As per the UNESCO page dedicated to the nominations process, the process requires countries to be signatories on the “World Heritage Convention, pledging to protect their natural and cultural heritage.” {{Cite web |last=Centre |first=UNESCO World Heritage |title=UNESCO World Heritage Centre - World Heritage List Nominations |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/nominations/ |access-date=2025-03-09 |website=UNESCO World Heritage Centre |language=en}} China has 59 additional sites that are on the “tentative list” as of March 2025. These sites include the natural reserves like the Dongzhai Port National Reserve and the Alligator Sinensis Nature Reserve, scenic zones like the Lijiang River Scenic Zone at Guilin, and historically relevant cultural relics like the City Walls of the Ming and Qing Dynasties.

UNESCO World Heritage also offers a “State of Conservation” section, in which any threats to these environments can be reported and monitored. More specifically: “The Information System offers you a trove of reliable data on the state of conservation of World Heritage properties since 1979 and the threats they have faced in the past, or are currently facing.” {{Cite web |last=Centre |first=UNESCO World Heritage |title=UNESCO World Heritage Centre - State of Conservation (SOC) |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/soc/ |access-date=2025-03-09 |website=UNESCO World Heritage Centre |language=en}} China has 28 properties that are listed under “concerned.” Many of the sites China has listed under “concerned” include threats of tourist impact, management systems, housing, and legal frameworks.{{Cite web |last=Centre |first=UNESCO World Heritage |title=UNESCO World Heritage Centre - State of Conservation (SOC) Search |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/soc/?id_search_state=34&action=list&mode=table |access-date=2025-03-09 |website=UNESCO World Heritage Centre |language=en}}

Environmental issues

File:Factory in China.jpg]]

File:Yangzhou-WenchangLu-electric-bicycles-3278.jpg are electric bicycles]]

Rapid industrialization, population growth, and lax environmental oversight have caused many environmental issues, such as large-scale pollution in China.{{cite news|title=Cost of Environmental Damage in China Growing Rapidly Amid Industrialization|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2013/03/30/world/asia/cost-of-environmental-degradation-in-china-is-growing.html|access-date=March 30, 2013|newspaper=The New York Times|date=March 29, 2013|author=Edward Wong}}

According to Jared Diamond, the six main categories of environmental problems of China are: air pollution, water problems, soil problems, habitat destruction, biodiversity loss and mega projects.Jared Diamond, Collapse: How Societies Choose to Fail or Succeed, Penguin Books, 2005 and 2011 ({{ISBN|9780241958681}}). See chapter 12 entitled "China, Lurching Giant" (pages 258-377). Diamond also states that, "China is noted for the frequency, number, extent, and damage of its natural disasters".

Studies show that particulate like PM10 and PM2.5 levels in China are among the highest in the world, which post significant public health risks.{{Cite journal |date=1968-03-01 |title=AISI 9262 |url=https://doi.org/10.31399/asm.ad.sa0223 |journal=Alloy Digest |volume=17 |issue=3 |doi=10.31399/asm.ad.sa0223 |issn=0002-614X}} By analyzing 16 cities, Research found that a 10 g/m³ increase in PM10 was associated with a 0.35% rise in total mortality, a 0.44% increase in cardiovascular mortality, and a 0.56% increase in respiratory mortality. In January 2013, fine airborne particulates that pose the largest health risks, rose as high as 993 micrograms per cubic meter in Beijing, compared with World Health Organization guidelines of no more than 25. The World Bank estimates that 16 of the world's most-polluted cities are located in China.{{cite news |author=Bloomberg News |date=14 January 2013 |title=Beijing Orders Official Cars Off Roads to Curb Pollution |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/2013-01-12/beijingers-told-to-stay-indoors-as-pollution-hits-record.html |access-date=27 July 2013 |newspaper=Bloomberg}} As of 2013, Beijing, which lies in a topographic bowl, has significant industry, and heats with coal, is subject to air inversions resulting in extremely high levels of pollution in winter months.{{cite news |date=April 3, 2013 |title=2 Major Air Pollutants Increase in Beijing |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2013/04/04/world/asia/two-major-air-pollutants-increase-in-china.html |access-date=April 4, 2013 |newspaper=The New York Times}}

A study by Wenqi Wu use a difference-in-difference-in-difference model to analyze air pollution across 290 Chinese cities from 2007 to 2021. They found that joint regional pollution control measures significantly reduced PM2.5 and industrial sulfur dioxide emissions, particularly in the Yangtze River Delta and the Pearl River Delta.{{Cite journal |last=Wang |first=Y. J. |last2=Gurd |first2=J. W. |last3=Mahler |first3=H. R. |date=1975-09-01 |title=Topography of synaptosomal high affinity uptake systems |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/1614 |journal=Life Sciences |volume=17 |issue=5 |pages=725–733 |doi=10.1016/0024-3205(75)90527-5 |issn=0024-3205 |pmid=1614}} However, the Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei region showed less improvement, possibly due to economic disparities and governance challenges.

An effort made by the government aim to address this problem was the implementation of the Air Pollution Prevention and Control Action Plan (APPCAP), which was implement between 2014 and 2018. This policy led to significant improvements in Beijing’s air quality, reducing key pollutants such as PM2.5, PM10, NO2, SO2, and CO.{{Cite journal |last=Wu |first=Wenqi |date=2023-11-16 |title=Is air pollution joint prevention and control effective in China—evidence from “Air Pollution Prevention and Control Action Plan” |url=https://link.springer.com/10.1007/s11356-023-30982-y |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |language=en |volume=30 |issue=58 |pages=122405–122419 |doi=10.1007/s11356-023-30982-y |issn=1614-7499}} A study of 35 monitoring sites in Beijing found that PM2.5 levels declined significantly. It contribute to a 5.6% decrease in pollution-related mortality. However, during the same period ozone (O3) levels increased. Additional policy such as the Best Available Control Technologies (BACT) and Advanced Coal Gasification Technologies (ACGT) have been proposed. Research suggest that implementing these policy could reduce pollution related health damages by 20–50%.{{Cite journal |last=Wang |first=Xiaoping |last2=Mauzerall |first2=Denise L. |date=March 2006 |title=Evaluating impacts of air pollution in China on public health: Implications for future air pollution and energy policies |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1352231005010447 |journal=Atmospheric Environment |language=en |volume=40 |issue=9 |pages=1706–1721 |doi=10.1016/j.atmosenv.2005.10.066}}

Public perception of air pollution in China remains a critical force in china Environmental policy. Many Chinese citizens have expressed concerns over whether air pollution is responsible for increasing lung cancer. This question began to rise because the citizens in China must constantly wear face masks to avoid breathing in the hazardous particles from their polluted skies. Some experts agree that it is the reason, but others say there isn't enough evidence. Wang Ning, deputy director of the Beijing Office for Prevention and Control, says he has seen a rise in a certain cancer called adenicarcinoma, which is a mucus that is seen as a side effect from pollution. China's lung cancer rate is 32% of the entire world's lung cancer patients. Meanwhile, as lung cancer increases, gastric, esophageal, and cervical cancer have all decreased in China.{{Cite web|url=https://blogs.wsj.com/chinarealtime/2014/03/10/does-air-pollution-cause-cancer/|title=Pollution: Causing Lung Cancer in China?|last=Burkitt|first=Laurie|date=2014-03-10|website=WSJ|access-date=2017-05-05}} In particular, elderly, women, and individuals with lower education levels, are disproportionately affected.{{Cite report |url=https://doi.org/10.4060/cd0989en |title=Haiti: Addressing the increased needs of vulnerable populations affected by escalating violence |date=2024-05-31 |publisher=FAO}} Regional disparities also highlight inequalities in environmental health as cities with higher baseline pollution levels tend to exhibit lower per-unit health impacts, possibly due to physiological adaptation, while cities with lower pollution levels with greater health effects per unit increase in pollution. A survey of Nanchang residents found that 69% believed air quality had deteriorated. They identify that motor vehicles, waste burning, and industrial facilities are the main contributors.{{Cite journal |last=Liao |first=Xiong |last2=Tu |first2=Hong |last3=Maddock |first3=Jay E. |last4=Fan |first4=Si |last5=Lan |first5=Guilin |last6=Wu |first6=Yanyan |last7=Yuan |first7=Zhao Kang |last8=Lu |first8=Yuanan |date=September 2015 |title=Residents' perception of air quality, pollution sources, and air pollution control in Nanchang, China |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1309104215301768 |journal=Atmospheric Pollution Research |language=en |volume=6 |issue=5 |pages=835–841 |doi=10.5094/APR.2015.092}} The survey also suggested strong public demand for stricter regulations, with 96.8% of respondents supporting increased government investment in air pollution control.