environmental impacts of animal agriculture

File:Total annual meat consumption by type of meat.png

File:Cereals allocated to food, animal feed and fuel, World.png

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| title = Nutritional value and environmental impact of animal products, compared to agriculture overallDamian Carrington, [https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2018/may/31/avoiding-meat-and-dairy-is-single-biggest-way-to-reduce-your-impact-on-earth "Avoiding meat and dairy is ‘single biggest way’ to reduce your impact on Earth "], The Guardian, 31 May 2018 (page visited on 19 August 2018).

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| data_type = Contribution of farmed animal product [%]

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| label1 = Calories

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| label2 = Proteins

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| label3 = Land use

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| label4 = Greenhouse gases

| data4 = 58

| label5 = Water pollution

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| label7 = Freshwater withdrawals

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Multiple studies have found that increases in meat consumption are currently associated with human population growth and rising individual incomes or GDP, and therefore, the environmental impacts of meat production and consumption will increase unless current behaviours change.{{cite news |last=Devlin |first=Hannah |date=July 19, 2018 |title=Rising global meat consumption 'will devastate environment' |work=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2018/jul/19/rising-global-meat-consumption-will-devastate-environment |access-date=July 21, 2018}}{{cite journal |last1=Godfray |first1=H. Charles J. |last2=Aveyard |first2=Paul |display-authors=etal. |date=2018 |title=Meat consumption, health, and the environment |url=https://ora.ox.ac.uk/objects/uuid:cc174e1d-0e3e-43ce-9d3b-ad7e204d0845 |journal=Science |volume=361 |issue=6399 |pages= |bibcode=2018Sci...361M5324G |doi=10.1126/science.aam5324 |pmid=30026199 |s2cid=49895246|doi-access=free }}{{cite news |last=Carrington |first=Damian |date=October 10, 2018 |title=Huge reduction in meat-eating 'essential' to avoid climate breakdown |work=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2018/oct/10/huge-reduction-in-meat-eating-essential-to-avoid-climate-breakdown |access-date=October 16, 2017}}

Changes in demand for meat will influence how much is produced, thus changing the environmental impact of meat production. It has been estimated that global meat consumption may double from 2000 to 2050, mostly as a consequence of the increasing world population, but also partly because of increased per capita meat consumption (with much of the per capita consumption increase occurring in the developing world).FAO. 2006. World agriculture: towards 2030/2050. Prospects for food, nutrition, agriculture and major commodity groups. Interim report. Global Perspectives Unit, United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization. 71 pp. The human population is projected to grow to 9 billion by 2050, and meat production is expected to increase by 40%.{{cite book |last= Nibert |first=David |editor1=Steven Best|editor2=Richard Kahn|editor3=Anthony J. Nocella II|editor4=Peter McLaren|author-link=David Nibert |editor1-link= Steven Best|editor4-link=Peter McLaren |date=2011|title=The Global Industrial Complex: Systems of Domination|chapter=Origins and Consequences of the Animal Industrial Complex |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield |page=208|url=https://rowman.com/ISBN/9780739136973/The-Global-Industrial-Complex-Systems-of-Domination |isbn=978-0739136980}} Global production and consumption of poultry meat have been growing recently at more than 5% annually. Meat consumption typically increases as people and countries get richer.{{Cite journal|last1=Ritchie|first1=Hannah|author1-link=Hannah Ritchie |last2=Roser|first2=Max|author2-link=Max Roser |date=2017-08-25|title=Meat and Dairy Production|url=https://ourworldindata.org/meat-production|journal=Our World in Data}} Trends also vary among livestock sectors. For example, global pork consumption per capita has increased recently (almost entirely due to changes in consumption within China), while global consumption per capita of ruminant meats has been declining.

File:Per capita annual meat consumption by region.png

File:Total annual meat consumption by region.png

About 85% of the world's soybean crop is processed into meal and vegetable oil, and virtually all of that meal is used in animal feed.{{Cite web|url=http://72.32.142.180/soy_facts.htm|title=Information About Soya, Soybeans|date=2011-10-16|access-date=2019-11-11|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111016221906/http://72.32.142.180/soy_facts.htm|archive-date=2011-10-16}} Approximately 6% of soybeans are used directly as human food, mostly in Asia.

For every 100 kilograms of food made for humans from crops, 37 kilograms byproducts unsuitable for direct human consumption are generated.{{Cite journal |last=Fadel |first=J. G |date=1999-06-30 |title=Quantitative analyses of selected plant by-product feedstuffs, a global perspective |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0377840199000310 |journal=Animal Feed Science and Technology |language=en |volume=79 |issue=4 |pages=255–268 |doi=10.1016/S0377-8401(99)00031-0 |issn=0377-8401}} Many countries then repurpose these human-inedible crop byproducts as livestock feed for cattle.{{Cite journal |last=Schingoethe |first=David J. |date=1991-07-01 |title=Byproduct Feeds: Feed Analysis and Interpretation |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0749072015307878 |journal=Veterinary Clinics of North America: Food Animal Practice |language=en |volume=7 |issue=2 |pages=577–584 |doi=10.1016/S0749-0720(15)30787-8 |pmid=1654177 |issn=0749-0720}} Raising animals for human consumption accounts for approximately 40% of total agricultural output in industrialized nations.{{Citation |last1=Steinfeld |first1=Henning |title=Livestock's Long Shadow: Environmental Issues and Options |url=http://www.europarl.europa.eu/climatechange/doc/FAO%20report%20executive%20summary.pdf |year=2006 |location=Rome |publisher=FAO |last2=Gerber |first2=Pierre |last3=Wassenaar |first3=Tom |last4=Castel |first4=Vincent |last5=Rosales |first5=Mauricio |last6=de Haan |first6=Cees}} Moreover, the efficiency of meat production varies depending on the specific production system, as well as the type of feed. It may require anywhere from 0.9 and 7.9 kilograms of grain to produce 1 kilogram of beef, between 0.1 to 4.3 kilograms of grain to produce 1 kilogram of pork, and 0 to 3.5 kilograms of grains to produce 1 kilogram of chicken.

File:Bridleway past Crop Field - geograph.org.uk - 1874041.jpgFAO estimates, however, that about 2 thirds of the pasture area used by livestock is not convertible to crop-land.

Major corporations purchase land in different developing nations in Latin America and Asia to support large-scale production of animal feed crops, mainly corn and soybeans. This practice reduces the amount of land available for growing crops that are fit for human consumption in these countries, putting the local population at risk of food security.{{Citation |last1=Borsari |first1=Bruno |title=Agriculture Production and Consumption |date=2020 |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-95726-5_78 |work=Responsible Consumption and Production |pages=1–11 |editor-last=Leal Filho |editor-first=Walter |access-date=2023-02-20 |place=Cham |publisher=Springer International Publishing |language=en |doi=10.1007/978-3-319-95726-5_78 |isbn=978-3-319-95726-5 |last2=Kunnas |first2=Jan |series=Encyclopedia of the UN Sustainable Development Goals |editor2-last=Azul |editor2-first=Anabela Marisa |editor3-last=Brandli |editor3-first=Luciana |editor4-last=özuyar |editor4-first=Pinar Gökçin}}

According to a study conducted in Jiangsu, China, individuals with higher incomes tend to consume more food than those with lower incomes and larger families. Consequently, it is unlikely that those employed in animal feed production in these regions do not consume the animals that eat the crops they produce. The lack of space for growing crops for consumption, coupled with the need to feed larger families, only exacerbates their food insecurity.{{Cite journal |last1=Zheng |first1=Zhihao |last2=Henneberry |first2=Shida Rastegari |date=2010 |title=The Impact of Changes in Income Distribution on Current and Future Food Demand in Urban China |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/23243036 |journal=Journal of Agricultural and Resource Economics |volume=35 |issue=1 |pages=51–71 |jstor=23243036 |issn=1068-5502}}

According to FAO, crop-residues and by-products account for 24% of the total dry matter intake of the global livestock sector. A 2018 study found that, "Currently, 70% of the feedstock used in the Dutch feed industry originates from the food processing industry."{{cite journal |last1=Elferink |first1=E. V. |display-authors=etal |year=2008 |title=Feeding livestock food residue and the consequences for the environmental impact of meat |journal=J. Clean. Prod. |volume=16 |issue=12 |pages=1227–1233 |doi=10.1016/j.jclepro.2007.06.008|bibcode=2008JCPro..16.1227E }} Examples of grain-based waste conversion in the United States include feeding livestock the distillers grains (with solubles) remaining from ethanol production. For the marketing year 2009–2010, dried distillers grains used as livestock feed (and residual) in the US was estimated at 25.5 million metric tons.Hoffman, L. and A. Baker. 2010. Market issues and prospects for U.S. distillers' grains supply, use, and price relationships. USDA FDS-10k-01 Examples of waste roughages include straw from barley and wheat crops (edible especially to large-ruminant breeding stock when on maintenance diets),National Research Council. 2000. Nutrient Requirements of Beef Cattle. National Academy Press.{{cite journal |last1=Anderson |first1=D. C. |year=1978 |title=Use of cereal residues in beef cattle production systems |journal=J. Anim. Sci. |volume=46 |issue=3 |pages=849–861 |doi=10.2527/jas1978.463849x}}{{cite journal |last1=Males |first1=J. R. |year=1987 |title=Optimizing the utilization of cereal crop residues for beef cattle |journal=J. Anim. Sci. |volume=65 |issue=4 |pages=1124–1130 |doi=10.2527/jas1987.6541124x}} and corn stover.{{cite journal |last1=Ward |first1=J. K. |year=1978 |title=Utilization of corn and grain sorghum residues in beef cow forage systems |journal=J. Anim. Sci. |volume=46 |issue=3 |pages=831–840 |doi=10.2527/jas1978.463831x}}{{cite journal |last1=Klopfenstein |first1=T. |display-authors=etal |year=1987 |title=Corn residues in beef production systems |journal=J. Anim. Sci. |volume=65 |issue=4 |pages=1139–1148 |doi=10.2527/jas1987.6541139x}}

{{Bar chart|title=Mean land use of different foods{{Cite journal|last1=Nemecek|first1=T.|last2=Poore|first2=J.|date=2018-06-01|title=Reducing food's environmental impacts through producers and consumers|journal=Science|volume=360|issue=6392|pages=987–992|doi=10.1126/science.aaq0216|issn=0036-8075|pmid=29853680|bibcode=2018Sci...360..987P|doi-access=free}}|float=right|label_type=Food Types|data_type=Land Use (m²year per 100g protein)|bar_width=20|width_units=em|data_max=185|label1=Lamb and mutton|data1=185|label2=Beef|data2=164|label3=Cheese|data3=41|label4=Pork|data4=11|label5=Poultry|data5=7.1|label6=Eggs|data6=5.7|label7=Farmed fish|data7=3.7|label8=Groundnuts|data8=3.5|label9=Peas|data9=3.4|label10=Tofu|data10=2.2|label11=|data11=|label12=|data12=|label13=|data13=}}Permanent meadows and pastures, grazed or not, occupy 26% of the Earth's ice-free terrestrial surface.{{Cite book |author1=Mottet, A. |author2=de Haan, C. |author3=Falcucci, A. |author4=Tempio, G. |author5=Opio, C. |author6=Gerber, P. |url=https://www.fao.org/documents/card/en/c/cc3134en |title=More fuel for the food/feed debate |publisher=FAO |year=2022}}{{Cite journal |last1=Mottet |first1=Anne |last2=de Haan |first2=Cees |last3=Falcucci |first3=Alessandra |last4=Tempio |first4=Giuseppe |last5=Opio |first5=Carolyn |last6=Gerber |first6=Pierre |date=2017-09-01 |title=Livestock: On our plates or eating at our table? A new analysis of the feed/food debate |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2211912416300013 |journal=Global Food Security |series=Food Security Governance in Latin America |language=en |volume=14 |pages=1–8 |doi=10.1016/j.gfs.2017.01.001 |bibcode=2017GlFS...14....1M |issn=2211-9124}} Feed crop production uses about one-third of all arable land. More than one-third of U.S. land is used for pasture, making it the largest land-use type in the contiguous United States.{{Cite news |last1=Merrill |first1=Dave |last2=Leatherby |first2=Lauren |date=2018-07-31 |title=Here's How America Uses Its Land |newspaper=Bloomberg.com |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/graphics/2018-us-land-use/ |access-date=2019-11-11}}File:Land-use-of-different-diets-Poore-Nemecek.pngIn many countries, livestock graze from the land which mostly cannot be used for growing human-edible crops, as seen by the fact that there is three times as much agricultural land{{Cite web |title=Agricultural land (% of land area) {{!}} Data |url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/AG.LND.AGRI.ZS |access-date=2023-01-13 |website=data.worldbank.org}} as arable land.{{Cite web |title=Arable land (% of land area) {{!}} Data |url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/AG.LND.ARBL.ZS |access-date=2023-01-13 |website=data.worldbank.org}}

A 2023 study found that a vegan diet reduced land use by 75%.{{cite news |last1=Carrington |first1=Damian |date=20 July 2023 |title=Vegan diet massively cuts environmental damage, study shows |work=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2023/jul/20/vegan-diet-cuts-environmental-damage-climate-heating-emissions-study |access-date=20 July 2023}}

Free-range animal production, particularly beef production, has also caused tropical deforestation because it requires land for grazing.{{cite news |date=5 May 2022 |title=How much does eating meat affect nations' greenhouse gas emissions? |work=Science News |url=https://www.sciencenews.org/article/food-emissions-data-diet-carbon-greenhouse-gas-climate-agriculture |access-date=27 May 2022}} The livestock sector is also the primary driver of deforestation in the Amazon, with around 80% of all deforested land being used for cattle farming.{{cite news |last=Wang |first=George C. |date=April 9, 2017 |title=Go vegan, save the planet |work=CNN |url=http://www.cnn.com/2017/04/08/opinions/go-vegan-save-the-planet-wang/ |access-date=August 25, 2019}}{{cite news |last=Liotta |first=Edoardo |date=August 23, 2019 |title=Feeling Sad About the Amazon Fires? Stop Eating Meat |work=Vice |url=https://www.vice.com/en_in/article/bjwzk4/feeling-sad-about-the-amazon-fires-stop-eating-meat |access-date=August 25, 2019}} Additionally, 91% of deforested land since 1970 has been used for cattle farming.{{cite book |author1=Steinfeld, Henning |url=http://www.fao.org/docrep/010/a0701e/a0701e00.htm |title=Livestock's Long Shadow: Environmental Issues and Options |author2=Gerber, Pierre |author3=Wassenaar, T. D. |author4=Castel, Vincent |publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations |year=2006 |isbn=978-92-5-105571-7 |access-date=August 19, 2008}}{{cite book |last=Margulis |first=Sergio |url=http://www-wds.worldbank.org/servlet/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2004/02/02/000090341_20040202130625/Rendered/PDF/277150PAPER0wbwp0no1022.pdf |title=Causes of Deforestation of the Brazilian Amazon |type=World Bank Working Paper No. 22 |publisher=The World Bank |year=2004 |isbn=0-8213-5691-7 |location=Washington D.C. |page=9 |access-date=September 4, 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080910042549/http://www-wds.worldbank.org/servlet/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2004/02/02/000090341_20040202130625/Rendered/PDF/277150PAPER0wbwp0no1022.pdf |archive-date=September 10, 2008 |url-status=live}} Research has argued that a shift to meat-free diets could provide a safe option to feed a growing population without further deforestation, and for different yields scenarios.{{cite journal |vauthors=Erb KH, Lauk C, Kastner T, Mayer A, Theurl MC, Haberl H |date=19 April 2016 |title=Exploring the biophysical option space for feeding the world without deforestation |journal=Nature Communications |volume=7 |pages=11382 |bibcode=2016NatCo...711382E |doi=10.1038/ncomms11382 |pmc=4838894 |pmid=27092437}} However, according to FAO, grazing livestock in drylands “removes vegetation, including dry and flammable plants, and mobilizes stored biomass through depositions, which is partly transferred to the soil, improving fertility. Livestock is key to creating and maintaining specific habitats and green infrastructures, providing resources for other species and dispersing seeds”.{{Cite book |url=https://doi.org/10.4060/cc2280en |title=Grazing with trees. A silvopastoral approach to managing and restoring drylands |year=2022 |publisher=FAO |isbn=978-92-5-136956-2 |location=Rome|doi=10.4060/cc2280en |hdl=2078.1/267328 |s2cid=252636900 }}

The use of ever increasing amounts of land for meat production and livestock rearing instead of plants and grains for human diets is, according to sociologist David Nibert, "a leading cause of malnutrition, hunger, and famine around the world."{{cite book |last= Nibert |first=David |editor1=Steven Best|editor2=Richard Kahn|editor3=Anthony J. Nocella II|editor4=Peter McLaren|editor1-link= Steven Best|editor4-link=Peter McLaren |date=2011|title=The Global Industrial Complex: Systems of Domination|chapter=Origins and Consequences of the Animal Industrial Complex |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield |page=204|url=https://rowman.com/ISBN/9780739136973/The-Global-Industrial-Complex-Systems-of-Domination|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3ZM3gTCIWb0C&pg=PA197|isbn=978-0739136980}}

Globally, the amount of water used for agricultural purposes exceeds any other industrialized purpose of water consumption.{{Cite journal |last=Velasco-Muñoz |first=Juan F. |date=2018-04-05 |title=Sustainable Water Use in Agriculture: A Review of Worldwide Research |journal=Sustainability |language=en |volume=10 |issue=4 |pages=1084 |doi=10.3390/su10041084 |issn=2071-1050 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2018Sust...10.1084V |hdl=10835/7355 |hdl-access=free }} About 80% of water resources globally are used for agricultural ecosystems. In developed countries, up to 60% of total water consumption can be used for irrigation; in developing countries, it can be up to 90%, depending on the region's economic status and climate. According to the projected increase in food production by 2050, water consumption would need to increase by 53% to satisfy the world population's demands for meat and agricultural production.

Groundwater depletion is a concern in some areas because of sustainability issues (and in some cases, land subsidence and/or saltwater intrusion).Konikow, L. W. 2013. Groundwater depletion in the United States (1900-2008). United States Geological Survey. Scientific Investigations Report 2013-5079. 63 pp. A particularly important North American example of depletion is the High Plains (Ogallala) Aquifer, which underlies about 174,000 square miles in parts of eight states of the USA and supplies 30 percent of the groundwater withdrawn for irrigation there.{{Cite web |title=HA 730-C High Plains aquifer. Ground Water Atlas of the United States. Arizona, Colorado, New Mexico, Utah |url=https://pubs.usgs.gov/ha/ha730/ch_c/C-text5.html |access-date=2018-10-13 |website=United States Geological Survey}} Some irrigated livestock feed production is not hydrologically sustainable in the long run because of aquifer depletion. Rainfed agriculture, which cannot deplete its water source, produces much of the livestock feed in North America. Corn (maize) is of particular interest, accounting for about 91.8% of the grain fed to US livestock and poultry in 2010.USDA. 2011. USDA Agricultural Statistics 2011.{{rp|table 1–75}} About 14 percent of US corn-for-grain land is irrigated, accounting for about 17% of US corn-for-grain production and 13% of US irrigation water use,USDA 2010. 2007 Census of agriculture. AC07-SS-1. Farm and ranch irrigation survey (2008). Volume 3, Special Studies. Part 1. (Issued 2009, updated 2010.) 209 pp. + appendices. Tables 1 and 28.USDA. 2009. 2007 Census of Agriculture. United States Summary and State Data. Vol. 1. Geographic Area Series. Part 51. AC-07-A-51. 639 pp. + appendices. Table 1. but only about 40% of US corn grain is fed to US livestock and poultry.{{rp|table 1–38}} Irrigation accounts for about 37% of US withdrawn freshwater use, and groundwater provides about 42% of US irrigation water. Irrigation water applied in the production of livestock feed and forage has been estimated to account for about 9 percent of withdrawn freshwater use in the United States.Zering, K. D., T. J. Centner, D. Meyer, G. L. Newton, J. M. Sweeten and S. Woodruff.2012. Water and land issues associated with animal agriculture: a U.S. perspective. CAST Issue Paper No. 50. Council for Agricultural Science and Technology, Ames, Iowa. 24 pp.

Almost one-third of the water used in the western United States goes to crops that feed cattle.{{Cite journal |last1=Richter |first1=Brian D. |last2=Bartak |first2=Dominique |last3=Caldwell |first3=Peter |last4=Davis |first4=Kyle Frankel |last5=Debaere |first5=Peter |last6=Hoekstra |first6=Arjen Y. |last7=Li |first7=Tianshu |last8=Marston |first8=Landon |last9=McManamay |first9=Ryan |last10=Mekonnen |first10=Mesfin M. |last11=Ruddell |first11=Benjamin L. |date=2020-03-02 |title=Water scarcity and fish imperilment driven by beef production |url=http://www.nature.com/articles/s41893-020-0483-z |journal=Nature Sustainability |language=en |volume=3 |issue=4 |pages=319–328 |doi=10.1038/s41893-020-0483-z |bibcode=2020NatSu...3..319R |issn=2398-9629 |s2cid=211730442}} This is despite the claim that withdrawn surface water and groundwater used for crop irrigation in the US exceeds that for livestock by about a ratio of 60:1.Kenny, J. F. et al. 2009. [http://pubs.usgs.gov/circ/1344/pdf/c1344.pdf Estimated use of water in the United States in 2005], US Geological Survey Circular 1344. 52 pp. This excessive use of river water distresses ecosystems and communities, and drives scores of species of fish closer to extinction during times of drought.{{cite news |last=Borunda |first=Alejandra |date=March 2, 2020 |title=How beef eaters in cities are draining rivers in the American West |work=National Geographic |url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/science/2020/03/burger-water-shortages-colorado-river-western-us/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200303025435/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/science/2020/03/burger-water-shortages-colorado-river-western-us/ |url-status=dead |archive-date=March 3, 2020 |access-date=April 27, 2020}}

A 2023 study found that a vegan diet reduced water usage by 54%.

A study in 2019 focused on linkages between water usage and animal agricultural practices in China.{{Cite journal |last1=Xiao |first1=Zhengyan |last2=Yao |first2=Meiqin |last3=Tang |first3=Xiaotong |last4=Sun |first4=Luxi |date=2019-01-01 |title=Identifying critical supply chains: An input-output analysis for Food-Energy-Water Nexus in China |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolmodel.2018.11.006 |journal=Ecological Modelling |volume=392 |pages=31–37 |doi=10.1016/j.ecolmodel.2018.11.006 |bibcode=2019EcMod.392...31X |s2cid=92222220 |issn=0304-3800}} The results of the study showed that water resources were being used primarily for animal agriculture; the highest categories were animal husbandry, agriculture, slaughtering and processing of meat, fisheries, and other foods. Together they accounted for the consumption of over 2400 billion m³ embodied water, roughly equating to 40% of total embodied{{clarify|date=May 2023}} water by the whole system. This means that more than one-third of China's entire water consumption is being used for food processing purposes, and mostly for animal agricultural practices.

Water pollution due to animal waste is a common problem in both developed and developing nations. The USA, Canada, India, Greece, Switzerland and several other countries are experiencing major environmental degradation due to water pollution via animal waste.{{Cite web |title=Livestock and the Environment |url=http://www.fao.org/wairdocs/lead/x6130e/x6130e02.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190129063720/http://www.fao.org/WAIRDOCS/LEAD/X6130E/X6130E02.htm |archive-date=2019-01-29 |access-date=2017-06-07}}{{rp|Table I-1}} Concerns about such problems are particularly acute in the case of CAFOs (concentrated animal feeding operations). In the US, a permit for a CAFO requires the implementation of a plan for the management of manure nutrients, contaminants, wastewater, etc., as applicable, to meet requirements under the Clean Water Act.the US Code of Federal Regulations 40 CFR 122.42(e) There were about 19,000 CAFOs in the US as of 2008.United States Environmental Protection Agency. Appendix to EPA ICR 1989.06: Supporting Statement for the Information Collection Request for NPDES and ELG Regulatory Revisions for Concentrated Animal Feeding Operations (Final Rule) In fiscal 2014, the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) concluded 26 enforcement actions for various violations by CAFOs.the US EPA. National Enforcement Initiative: Preventing animal waste from contaminating surface and groundwater. http://www2.epa.gov/enforcement/national-enforcement-initiative-preventing-animal-waste-contaminating-surface-and-ground#progress {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180910042655/https://www.epa.gov/enforcement/national-enforcement-initiative-preventing-animal-waste-contaminating-surface-and-ground#progress |date=2018-09-10 }}

A 2023 study found that a vegan diet reduced water pollution by 75%.File:River algae Sichuan.jpgEffective use of fertilizer is crucial to accelerate the growth of animal feed production, which in turn increases the amount of feed available for livestock.{{Cite journal |last1=Zhou |first1=Yuan |last2=Yang |first2=Hong |last3=Mosler |first3=Hans-Joachim |last4=Abbaspour |first4=Karim C. |date=2010 |title=Factors affecting farmers' decisions on fertilizer use: A case study for the Chaobai watershed in Northern China |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/26167133 |journal=Consilience |issue=4 |pages=80–102 |jstor=26167133 |issn=1948-3074}} However, excess fertilizer can enter water bodies via runoff after rainfall, resulting in eutrophication.{{Cite journal |last1=HERNÁNDEZ |first1=DANIEL L. |last2=VALLANO |first2=DENA M. |last3=ZAVALETA |first3=ERIKA S. |last4=TZANKOVA |first4=ZDRAVKA |last5=PASARI |first5=JAE R. |last6=WEISS |first6=STUART |last7=SELMANTS |first7=PAUL C. |last8=MOROZUMI |first8=CORINNE |date=2016 |title=Nitrogen Pollution Is Linked to US Listed Species Declines |journal=BioScience |volume=66 |issue=3 |pages=213–222 |doi=10.1093/biosci/biw003 |jstor=90007566 |issn=0006-3568|doi-access=free }} The addition of nitrogen and phosphorus can cause the rapid growth of algae, also known as an algae bloom. The reduction of oxygen and nutrients in the water caused by the growth of algae ultimately leads to the death of other species in the ecosystem. This ecological harm has consequences not only for the native animals in the affected water body but also for the water supply for people.

To dispose of animal waste and other pollutants, animal production farms often spray manure (often contaminated with potentially toxic bacteria) onto empty fields, called "spray-fields", via sprinkler systems. The toxins within these spray-fields oftentimes run into creeks, ponds, lakes, and other bodies of water, contaminating bodies of water. This process has also led to the contamination of drinking water reserves, harming the environment and citizens alike.{{Cite web |last=Berger |first=Jamie |date=2022-04-01 |title=How Black North Carolinians pay the price for the world's cheap bacon |url=https://www.vox.com/future-perfect/23003487/north-carolina-hog-pork-bacon-farms-environmental-racism-black-residents-pollution-meat-industry |access-date=2023-11-30 |website=Vox |language=en}}

Waterborne illness epidemics have been linked to improper animal waste management, which has contaminated water bodies. Runoff from concentrated animal feeding operations (CAFOs) often contains high levels of pathogens such as Escherichia coli, Salmonella, and Cryptosporidium.{{cite book |last1=World Health Organization |url=https://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/10665/75700/1/9789241564519_eng.pdf |title=Animal Waste, Water Quality and Human Health |date=2012 |publisher=WHO Press}}

Escherichia coli is highly married to fecal waste, as a result of surface runoff these organisms in animal waste can enter open water bodies and groundwater systems. This increases the risk of waterborne illnesses in nearby communities as the perfect conditions of bacteria and high nutrient waste are present. Several studies have documented outbreaks linked to contaminated drinking water sources adjacent to livestock operations .{{cite journal |last1=Burkholder |first1=J. |year=2007 |title=Impacts of Waste from Concentrated Animal Feeding Operations on Water Quality |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/249649951 |journal=Environmental Health Perspectives |volume=115 |issue=2 |pages=308–312|doi=10.1289/ehp.8839 |pmid=17384784 |pmc=1817674 |bibcode=2007EnvHP.115..308B }}

Contaminated water damns can further extapolate the spread of organisms. Foodborne disease outbreaks have been linked to the drinking of water and irrigation of crops with tainted water, underscoring the connection between public health and agricultural practices.{{Cite journal |last1=Rodrigues |first1=Camila |last2=da Silva |first2=Andre Luiz Biscaia Ribeiro |last3=Dunn |first3=Laurel L. |date=2019-12-21 |title=Factors Impacting the Prevalence of Foodborne Pathogens in Agricultural Water Sources in the Southeastern United States |journal=Water |language=en |volume=12 |issue=1 |pages=51 |doi=10.3390/w12010051 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2019Water..12...51R |issn=2073-4441 }}

In Walkerton, Ontario, Canada, for example, the 2000 incident was linked to E. coli O157:H7 contamination of the municipal water supply, which was caused by manure runoff after intense rains. Immunocompromised individuals have increased chances of mortalities due to these outbreak as they tend to have more severe symptoms. Over 2,300 illnesses and seven fatalities resulted from this episode.{{Cite web |title=PATHOGENS IN ANIMAL WASTES AND THE IMPACTS OF WASTE MANAGEMENT PRACTICES ON THEIR SURVIVAL, TRANSPORT AND FATE |url=https://elibrary.asabe.org/abstract.asp?aid=20268&utm_source=chatgpt.com |access-date=2025-03-21 |website=doi.org |language=en-us}}

Monitoring the water quality around livestock activities can aid in the early identification and prevention of any outbreaks, and it is essential to employ efficient animal waste management methods, such as the appropriate storage, treatment, and disposal of manure, in order to reduce these hazards.{{Cite journal |last1=Alegbeleye |first1=Oluwadara Oluwaseun |last2=Sant’Ana |first2=Anderson S. |date=2020-06-01 |title=Manure-borne pathogens as an important source of water contamination: An update on the dynamics of pathogen survival/transport as well as practical risk mitigation strategies |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1438463920300262 |journal=International Journal of Hygiene and Environmental Health |volume=227 |pages=113524 |doi=10.1016/j.ijheh.2020.113524 |bibcode=2020IJHEH.22713524A |issn=1438-4639}}

In essence, maintaining water quality and preserving public health depend on tackling the issues caused by animal waste runoff.

{{Bar chart|title=Mean acidifying emissions (air pollution) of different foods per 100g of protein|float=right|label_type=Food Types|data_type=Acidifying Emissions (g SO₂eq per 100g protein)|bar_width=20|width_units=em|data_max=300.6|label1=Beef|data1=343.6|label2=Cheese|data2=165.5|label3=Pork|data3=142.7|label4=Lamb and Mutton|data4=139.0|label5=Farmed Crustaceans|data5=133.1|label6=Poultry|data6=102.4|label7=Farmed Fish|data7=65.9|label8=Eggs|data8=53.7|label9=Groundnuts|data9=22.6|label10=Peas|data10=8.5|label11=Tofu|data11=6.7|label12=|data12=|label13=|data13=}}

Animal agriculture is a cause of harmful particulate matter pollution in the atmosphere. This type of production chain produces byproducts; endotoxin, hydrogen sulfide, ammonia, and particulate matter (PM), such as dust,{{cite journal |last1=Merchant |first1=James A. |last2=Naleway |first2=Allison L. |last3=Svendsen |first3=Erik R. |last4=Kelly |first4=Kevin M. |last5=Burmeister |first5=Leon F. |last6=Stromquist |first6=Ann M. |last7=Taylor |first7=Craig D. |last8=Thorne |first8=Peter S. |last9=Reynolds |first9=Stephen J. |last10=Sanderson |first10=Wayne T. |last11=Chrischilles |first11=Elizabeth A. |year=2005 |title=Asthma and Farm Exposures in a Cohort of Rural Iowa Children |journal=Environmental Health Perspectives |volume=113 |issue=3 |pages=350–356 |doi=10.1289/ehp.7240 |pmc=1253764 |pmid=15743727|bibcode=2005EnvHP.113..350M }}{{Cite web |last=Borrell |first=Brendan |date=December 3, 2018 |title=In California's Fertile Valley, a Bumper Crop of Air Pollution |url=https://undark.org/article/air-pollution-california/ |access-date=2019-09-27 |website=Undark |language=en-US}} all of which can negatively impact human respiratory health.{{cite journal |last1=Viegas |first1=S. |last2=Faísca |first2=V. M. |last3=Dias |first3=H. |last4=Clérigo |first4=A. |last5=Carolino |first5=E. |last6=Viegas |first6=C. |year=2013 |title=Occupational Exposure to Poultry Dust and Effects on the Respiratory System in Workers |journal=Journal of Toxicology and Environmental Health, Part A |volume=76 |issue=4–5 |pages=230–239 |doi=10.1080/15287394.2013.757199 |pmid=23514065 |bibcode=2013JTEHA..76..230V |s2cid=22558834}} Furthermore, methane and {{CO2}}—the primary greenhouse gas emissions associated with meat production—have also been associated with respiratory diseases like asthma, bronchitis, and COPD.{{cite journal |last1=George |first1=Maureen |last2=Bruzzese |first2=Jean-Marie |last3=Matura |first3=Lea Ann |year=2017 |title=Climate Change Effects on Respiratory Health: Implications for Nursing |journal=Journal of Nursing Scholarship |volume=49 |issue=6 |pages=644–652 |doi=10.1111/jnu.12330 |pmid=28806469 |doi-access=free}}

A study found that concentrated animal feeding operations (CAFOs) could increase perceived asthma-like symptoms for residents within 500 meters.{{cite journal |last1=Radon |first1=Katja |last2=Schulze |first2=Anja |last3=Ehrenstein |first3=Vera |last4=Van Strien |first4=Rob T. |last5=Praml |first5=Georg |last6=Nowak |first6=Dennis |year=2007 |title=Environmental Exposure to Confined Animal Feeding Operations and Respiratory Health of Neighboring Residents |journal=Epidemiology |volume=18 |issue=3 |pages=300–308 |doi=10.1097/01.ede.0000259966.62137.84 |pmid=17435437 |s2cid=15905956|doi-access=free }} Concentrated hog feeding operations release air pollutants from confinement buildings, manure holding pits, and land application of waste. Air pollutants from these operations have caused acute physical symptoms, such as respiratory illnesses, wheezing, increased breath rate, and irritation of the eyes and nose.{{cite journal |last1=Schinasi |first1=Leah |last2=Horton |first2=Rachel Avery |last3=Guidry |first3=Virginia T. |last4=Wing |first4=Steve |last5=Marshall |first5=Stephen W. |last6=Morland |first6=Kimberly B. |year=2011 |title=Air Pollution, Lung Function, and Physical Symptoms in Communities Near Concentrated Swine Feeding Operations |journal=Epidemiology |volume=22 |issue=2 |pages=208–215 |doi=10.1097/ede.0b013e3182093c8b |pmc=5800517 |pmid=21228696}}{{cite journal |last1=Mirabelli |first1=M. C. |last2=Wing |first2=S. |last3=Marshall |first3=S. W. |last4=Wilcosky |first4=T. C. |year=2006 |title=Asthma Symptoms Among Adolescents Who Attend Public Schools That Are Located Near Confined Swine Feeding Operations |journal=Pediatrics |volume=118 |issue=1 |pages=e66–e75 |doi=10.1542/peds.2005-2812 |pmc=4517575 |pmid=16818539}}{{cite journal |last1=Pavilonis |first1=Brian T. |last2=Sanderson |first2=Wayne T. |last3=Merchant |first3=James A. |year=2013 |title=Relative exposure to swine animal feeding operations and childhood asthma prevalence in an agricultural cohort |journal=Environmental Research |volume=122 |pages=74–80 |bibcode=2013ER....122...74P |doi=10.1016/j.envres.2012.12.008 |pmc=3980580 |pmid=23332647}} That prolonged exposure to airborne animal particulate, such as swine dust, induces a large influx of inflammatory cells into the airways.{{cite journal |last1=Müller-Suur |first1=C. |last2=Larsson |first2=K. |last3=Malmberg |first3=P. |last4=Larsson |first4=P.H. |year=1997 |title=Increased number of activated lymphocytes in human lung following swine dust inhalation |journal=European Respiratory Journal |volume=10 |issue=2 |pages=376–380 |doi=10.1183/09031936.97.10020376 |pmid=9042635 |doi-access=free}} Those in close proximity to CAFOs could be exposed to elevated levels of these byproducts, which may lead to poor health and respiratory outcomes.{{Cite journal |last=Carrie |first=Hribar |date=2010 |title=Understanding Concentrated Animal Feeding Operations and Their Impact on Communities |url=https://www.cdc.gov/nceh/ehs/docs/understanding_cafos_nalboh.pdf |journal=2010 National Association of Local Boards of Health |via=Centres for Disease Control and Prevention}} Additionally, since CAFOs tend to be located in primarily rural and low-income communities, low-income people are disproportionately affected by these environmental health consequences. [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1637958/]

Especially when modified by high temperatures, air pollution can harm all regions, socioeconomic groups, sexes, and age groups. Approximately seven million people die from air pollution exposure every year. Air pollution often exacerbates respiratory disease by permeating into the lung tissue and damaging the lungs.{{Cite journal |last1=Areal |first1=Ashtyn Tracey |last2=Zhao |first2=Qi |last3=Wigmann |first3=Claudia |last4=Schneider |first4=Alexandra |last5=Schikowski |first5=Tamara |date=2022-03-10 |title=The effect of air pollution when modified by temperature on respiratory health outcomes: A systematic review and meta-analysis |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0048969721074131 |journal=Science of the Total Environment |language=en |volume=811 |pages=152336 |bibcode=2022ScTEn.81152336A |doi=10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.152336 |issn=0048-9697 |pmid=34914983 |s2cid=245204902}}

Despite the wealth of environmental consequences listed above, local US governments tend to support the harmful practices of the animal production industry due to its strong economic benefits. Due to this protective legislature, it is extremely difficult for activists to regulate industry practices and diminish environmental impacts.{{Cite web |last=Cooke |first=Christina |date=2017-05-09 |title=NC GOP Protects Factory Farms' Right to Pollute |url=https://civileats.com/2017/05/09/north-carolina-factory-farms-lose-effort-to-limit-pollution-lawsuits/ |access-date=2023-11-30 |website=Civil Eats |language=en}}

File:Energy efficiency of meat and dairy production, OWID.svg

An important aspect of energy use in livestock production is the energy consumption that the animals contribute. Feed Conversion Ratio is an animal's ability to convert feed into meat. The Feed Conversion Ratio (FCR) is calculated by taking the energy, protein, or mass input of the feed divided by the output of meat provided by the animal. A lower FCR corresponds with a smaller requirement of feed per meat output, and therefore the animal contributes less GHG emissions. Chickens and pigs usually have a lower FCR compared to ruminants.{{Cite journal |last1=Röös |first1=Elin |last2=Sundberg |first2=Cecilia |last3=Tidåker |first3=Pernilla |last4=Strid |first4=Ingrid |last5=Hansson |first5=Per-Anders |date=2013-01-01 |title=Can carbon footprint serve as an indicator of the environmental impact of meat production? |journal=Ecological Indicators |volume=24 |pages=573–581 |doi=10.1016/j.ecolind.2012.08.004|bibcode=2013EcInd..24..573R }}

Intensification and other changes in the livestock industries influence energy use, emissions, and other environmental effects of meat production.{{cite journal |last1=Capper |first1=J. L. |year=2011 |title=The environmental impact of beef production in the United States: 1977 compared with 2007. |journal=J. Anim. Sci. |volume=89 |issue=12 |pages=4249–4261 |doi=10.2527/jas.2010-3784 |pmid=21803973 |doi-access=free}}

Manure can also have environmental benefits as a renewable energy source, in digester systems yielding biogas for heating and/or electricity generation. Manure biogas operations can be found in Asia, Europe,Erneubare Energien in Deutschland - Rückblick und Stand des Innovationsgeschehens. Bundesministerium fűr Umwelt, Naturschutz u. Reaktorsicherheit. http://www.bmu.de/files/pdfs/allgemin/application/pdf/ibee_gesamt_bf.pdf{{dead link|date=September 2017 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}Biogas from manure and waste products - Swedish case studies. SBGF; SGC; Gasföreningen. 119 pp. [https://web.archive.org/web/20221007163921/http://www.iea-biogas.net/_download/public-task37/public-member/Swedish_report_08.pdf] North America, and elsewhere.{{cite web |date=2014-06-02 |title=U.S. Anaerobic Digester |url=http://www.epa.gov/agstar/documents/digester_status_report2010.pdf |access-date=2015-03-30 |publisher=Agf.gov.bc.ca}} System cost is substantial, relative to US energy values, which may be a deterrent to more widespread use. Additional factors, such as odour control and carbon credits, may improve benefit-to-cost ratios.NRCS. 2007. An analysis of energy production costs from anaerobic digestion systems on U.S. livestock production facilities. US Natural Resources Conservation Service. Tech. Note 1. 33 pp. Manure can be mixed with other organic wastes in anaerobic digesters to take advantage of economies of scale. Digested waste is more uniform in consistency than untreated organic wastes, and can have higher proportions of nutrients that are more available to plants, which enhances the utility of digestate as a fertiliser product.{{cite journal |last1=Ramirez |first1=Jerome |last2=McCabe |first2=Bernadette |last3=Jensen |first3=Paul D. |last4=Speight |first4=Robert |last5=Harrison |first5=Mark |last6=van den Berg |first6=Lisa |last7=O'Hara |first7=Ian |date=2021 |title=Wastes to profit: a circular economy approach to value-addition in livestock industries |url=https://www.publish.csiro.au/an/Fulltext/AN20400 |journal=Animal Production Science |volume=61 |issue=6 |page=541 |doi=10.1071/AN20400 |s2cid=233881148|doi-access=free }} This encourages circularity in meat production, which is typically difficult to achieve due to environmental and food safety concerns.

{{excerpt|Greenhouse gas emissions from agriculture#Livestock|paragraphs=1-4|file=no}}

The Food and Agriculture Organization estimates that in 2015 around 7% of global greenhouse gas emissions (GHG) were due to cattle,{{refn|FAO say that in 2015 livestock production created around 12% of greenhouse gas emissions, some 62% of which is due to cattle, thus 7%.{{Cite web |title=New FAO report maps pathways towards lower livestock emissions |url=https://www.fao.org/newsroom/detail/new-fao-report-maps-pathways-towards-lower-livestock-emissions/en |access-date=2024-03-25 |website=Newsroom}}|group=note}} but this is uncertain.{{Cite web |title=Livestock Don't Contribute 14.5% of Global Greenhouse Gas Emissions |url=https://thebreakthrough.org/issues/food-agriculture-environment/livestock-dont-contribute-14-5-of-global-greenhouse-gas-emissions |access-date=2024-03-25 |website=The Breakthrough Institute}} Another estimate is 12% of global GHG.{{Cite news |date=2 October 2021 |title=Treating beef like coal would make a big dent in greenhouse-gas emissions |url=https://www.economist.com/graphic-detail/2021/10/02/treating-beef-like-coal-would-make-a-big-dent-in-greenhouse-gas-emissions |url-access=subscription |access-date=3 November 2021 |newspaper=The Economist |issn=0013-0613}} More recently Climate Trace estimates 4.5% directly from cattle in 2022. Reducing methane emissions quickly helps limit climate change.File:Carbon_footprint_of_protein_foods.png

File:Environmental-impact-of-food-by-life-cycle-stage.png

Gut flora in cattle include methanogens that produce methane as a byproduct of enteric fermentation, which cattle belch out. Additional methane is produced by anaerobic fermentation of manure in manure lagoons and other manure storage structures.US EPA. 2012. Inventory of U.S. greenhouse gase emissions and sinks: 1990–2010. US. Environmental Protection Agency. EPA 430-R-12-001. Section 6.2. Manure can also release nitrous oxide.{{Cite journal |last1=Rivera |first1=Julián Esteban |last2=Chará |first2=Julian |date=2021 |title=CH4 and N2O Emissions From Cattle Excreta: A Review of Main Drivers and Mitigation Strategies in Grazing Systems |journal=Frontiers in Sustainable Food Systems |volume=5 |doi=10.3389/fsufs.2021.657936 |issn=2571-581X |doi-access=free}} Over 20 years atmospheric methane has 81 times the global warming potential of the same amount of atmospheric carbon dioxide.{{Citation |title=7.SM.6 Tables of greenhouse gas lifetimes, radiative efficiencies and metrics |date=2021 |page=7SM-24 |url=https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg1/downloads/report/IPCC_AR6_WGI_Chapter_07_Supplementary_Material.pdf |publisher=IPCC}}.

As conditions vary a lot{{cite journal |last1=Eckard |first1=R. J. |last2=Grainger |first2=C. |last3=de Klein |first3=C.A.M. |year=2010 |title=Options for the abatement of methane and nitrous oxide from ruminant production: A review |journal=Livestock Science |volume=130 |issue=1–3 |pages=47–56 |doi=10.1016/j.livsci.2010.02.010}} the IPCC would like these taken into account when estimating methane emissions, in other words countries where cattle are significant should use Tier 3 methods in their national greenhouse gas inventories.{{Cite journal |last1=Ghassemi Nejad |first1=J. |last2=Ju |first2=M. S. |last3=Jo |first3=J. H. |last4=Oh |first4=K. H. |last5=Lee |first5=Y. S. |last6=Lee |first6=S. D. |last7=Kim |first7=E. J. |last8=Roh |first8=S. |last9=Lee |first9=H. G. |date=2024 |title=Advances in Methane Emission Estimation in Livestock: A Review of Data Collection Methods, Model Development and the Role of AI Technologies |journal=Animals |volume=14 |issue=3 |page=435 |doi=10.3390/ani14030435 |pmc=10854801 |pmid=38338080 |doi-access=free}} Although well-managed perennial pastures sequester carbon in the soil, {{As of|2023|lc=y}} life cycle assessments are required to fully assess pastoral dairy farms in all environments.{{Cite journal |last1=Soder |first1=K. J. |last2=Brito |first2=A. F. |date=2023 |title=Enteric methane emissions in grazing dairy systems |journal=JDS Communications |volume=4 |issue=4 |pages=324–328 |doi=10.3168/jdsc.2022-0297 |pmc=10382831 |pmid=37521055}}

File:Development of per capita meat consumption and gross domestic product (GDP) over time (1990–2017).png 1990–2017]]

Mitigation options for reducing methane emission from livestock include a change in diet, that is consuming less meat and dairy.{{Cite journal |last1=Poore |first1=J. |last2=Nemecek |first2=T. |date=2018-06-01 |title=Reducing food's environmental impacts through producers and consumers |journal=Science |volume=360 |issue=6392 |pages=987–992 |bibcode=2018Sci...360..987P |doi=10.1126/science.aaq0216 |issn=1095-9203 |pmid=29853680 |s2cid=206664954|doi-access=free }} A significant reduction in meat consumption will be essential to mitigate climate change, especially as the human population increases by a projected 2.3 billion by the middle of the century. A 2019 report in The Lancet recommended that global meat consumption be halved to mitigate climate change.{{cite news |last=Gibbens |first=Sarah |date=January 16, 2019 |title=Eating meat has 'dire' consequences for the planet, says report |work=National Geographic |url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/environment/2019/01/commission-report-great-food-transformation-plant-diet-climate-change/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190117010915/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/environment/2019/01/commission-report-great-food-transformation-plant-diet-climate-change/ |url-status=dead |archive-date=January 17, 2019 |access-date=January 21, 2019}} A study quantified climate change mitigation potentials of 'high-income' nations shifting diets – away from meat-consumption – and restoration of the spared land, finding that if these were combined they could "reduce annual agricultural production emissions of high-income nations' diets by 61%".{{cite news |title=How plant-based diets not only reduce our carbon footprint, but also increase carbon capture |language=en |work=Leiden University |url=https://phys.org/news/2022-01-plant-based-diets-carbon-footprint-capture.html |access-date=14 February 2022}}{{cite journal |last1=Sun |first1=Zhongxiao |last2=Scherer |first2=Laura |last3=Tukker |first3=Arnold |last4=Spawn-Lee |first4=Seth A. |last5=Bruckner |first5=Martin |last6=Gibbs |first6=Holly K. |last7=Behrens |first7=Paul |date=January 2022 |title=Dietary change in high-income nations alone can lead to substantial double climate dividend |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/357723207 |journal=Nature Food |language=en |volume=3 |issue=1 |pages=29–37 |doi=10.1038/s43016-021-00431-5 |pmid=37118487 |issn=2662-1355 |s2cid=245867412 |url-access=subscription}}

In addition to reduced consumption, emissions can also be reduced by changes in practice. One study found that shifting compositions of current feeds, production areas, and informed land restoration could enable greenhouse gas emissions reductions of 34–85% annually (612–1,506 megatons CO₂ equivalent per year) without increasing costs or changing diets.{{Cite journal |last1=Castonguay |first1=Adam C. |last2=Polasky |first2=Stephen |last3=H. Holden |first3=Matthew |last4=Herrero |first4=Mario |last5=Mason-D’Croz |first5=Daniel |last6=Godde |first6=Cecile |last7=Chang |first7=Jinfeng |last8=Gerber |first8=James |last9=Witt |first9=G. Bradd |last10=Game |first10=Edward T. |last11=A. Bryan |first11=Brett |last12=Wintle |first12=Brendan |last13=Lee |first13=Katie |last14=Bal |first14=Payal |last15=McDonald-Madden |first15=Eve |date=March 2023 |title=Navigating sustainability trade-offs in global beef production |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41893-022-01017-0 |journal=Nature Sustainability |language=en |volume=6 |issue=3 |pages=284–294 |doi=10.1038/s41893-022-01017-0 |bibcode=2023NatSu...6..284C |s2cid=255638753 |issn=2398-9629}}

Producers can reduce ruminant enteric fermentation using genetic selection,{{Cite web |url=https://www.genomecanada.ca/en/programs/large-scale-science/past-competitions/strategic-initiatives/bovine-genomics |title=Bovine genomics project at Genome Canada |access-date=2018-11-30 |archive-date=2019-08-10 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190810023632/https://www.genomecanada.ca/en/programs/large-scale-science/past-competitions/strategic-initiatives/bovine-genomics |url-status=dead }}{{cite magazine |title=Canada Is Using Genetics to Make Cows Less Gassy |date=2017-06-09 |magazine=Wired |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230524194330/https://www.wired.com/story/canada-is-using-genetics-to-make-cows-less-gassy/ |archive-date=2023-05-24 |url-status=live |url=https://www.wired.com/story/canada-is-using-genetics-to-make-cows-less-gassy/}} immunization, rumen defaunation, competition of methanogenic archaea with acetogens,{{cite journal |last1=Joblin |first1=K. N. |year=1999 |title=Ruminal acetogens and their potential to lower ruminant methane emissions |journal=Australian Journal of Agricultural Research |volume=50 |issue=8 |pages=1307 |doi=10.1071/AR99004}} introduction of methanotrophic bacteria into the rumen,[https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01137190/document The use of direct-fed microbials for mitigation of ruminant methane emissions: a review]{{cite journal |last1=Parmar |first1=N.R. |last2=Nirmal Kumar |first2=J.I. |last3=Joshi |first3=C.G. |year=2015 |title=Exploring diet-dependent shifts in methanogen and methanotroph diversity in the rumen of Mehsani buffalo by a metagenomics approach |journal=Frontiers in Life Science |volume=8 |issue=4 |pages=371–378 |doi=10.1080/21553769.2015.1063550 |s2cid=89217740}} diet modification and grazing management, among others.{{cite journal |last1=Boadi |first1=D |year=2004 |title=Mitigation strategies to reduce enteric methane emissions from dairy cows: Update review |journal=Can. J. Anim. Sci. |volume=84 |issue=3 |pages=319–335 |doi=10.4141/a03-109 |doi-access=free}}{{cite journal |last1=Martin |first1=C. |last2=Morgavi |first2=D.P. |last3=Doreau |first3=M. |title=Methane mitigation in ruminants: from microbe to the farm scale |journal=Animal |date=2010 |volume=4 |issue=3 |pages=351–365 |doi=10.1017/S1751731109990620 |pmid=22443940 |bibcode=2010Anim....4..351M }}{{cite journal |last1=Eckard |first1=R. J. |display-authors=etal |year=2010 |title=Options for the abatement of methane and nitrous oxide from ruminant production: A review |journal=Livestock Science |volume=130 |issue=1–3 |pages=47–56 |doi=10.1016/j.livsci.2010.02.010}} The principal mitigation strategies identified for reduction of agricultural nitrous oxide emissions are avoiding over-application of nitrogen fertilizers and adopting suitable manure management practices.{{cite journal |last1=Dalal |first1=R.C. |display-authors=etal |year=2003 |title=Nitrous oxide emission from Australian agricultural lands and mitigation options: a review |journal=Australian Journal of Soil Research |volume=41 |issue=2 |pages=165–195 |doi=10.1071/sr02064 |bibcode=2003SoilR..41..165D |s2cid=4498983}}{{cite journal |last1=Klein |first1=C. A. M. |last2=Ledgard |first2=S. F. |year=2005 |title=Nitrous oxide emissions from New Zealand agriculture – key sources and mitigation strategies |journal=Nutrient Cycling in Agroecosystems |volume=72 |issue=1 |pages=77–85 |doi=10.1007/s10705-004-7357-z |bibcode=2005NCyAg..72...77D |s2cid=42756018}} Mitigation strategies for reducing carbon dioxide emissions in the livestock sector include adopting more efficient production practices to reduce agricultural pressure for deforestation (such as in Latin America), reducing fossil fuel consumption, and increasing carbon sequestration in soils.Gerber, P. J., H. Steinfeld, B. Henderson, A. Mottet, C. Opio, J. Dijkman, A. Falcucci and G. Tempio. 2013. Tackling climate change through livestock - a global assessment of emissions and mitigation opportunities. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome. 115 pp.

Methane belching from cattle might be reduced by intensification of farming,{{Cite journal |last1=Reisinger |first1=Andy |last2=Clark |first2=Harry |last3=Cowie |first3=Annette L. |last4=Emmet-Booth |first4=Jeremy |last5=Gonzalez Fischer |first5=Carlos |last6=Herrero |first6=Mario |last7=Howden |first7=Mark |last8=Leahy |first8=Sinead |date=2021-11-15 |title=How necessary and feasible are reductions of methane emissions from livestock to support stringent temperature goals? |journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences |language=en |volume=379 |issue=2210 |pages=20200452 |bibcode=2021RSPTA.37900452R |doi=10.1098/rsta.2020.0452 |issn=1364-503X |pmc=8480228 |pmid=34565223}} selective breeding, immunization against the many methanogens, rumen defaunation (killing the bacteria-killing protozoa),{{Cite journal |last1=L. Aban |first1=Maita |last2=C. Bestil |first2=Lolito |date=2016 |title=Rumen Defaunation: Determining the Level and Frequency of Leucaena leucocephala Linn. Forage |url=http://www.ijfe.org/uploadfile/2016/0512/20160512062938837.pdf |journal=International Journal of Food Engineering |volume=2 |issue=1}} diet modification (e.g. seaweed fortification),{{Cite news |last=Lewis Mernit |first=Judith |date=2 July 2018 |title=How Eating Seaweed Can Help Cows to Belch Less Methane |url=https://e360.yale.edu/features/how-eating-seaweed-can-help-cows-to-belch-less-methane |access-date=29 January 2022 |work=Yale School of the Environment}} decreased antibiotic use,{{Cite web |last=Axt |first=Barbara |date=25 May 2016 |title=Treating cows with antibiotics doubles dung methane emissions |url=https://www.newscientist.com/article/2089867-treating-cows-with-antibiotics-doubles-dung-methane-emissions/ |access-date=5 October 2019 |website=New Scientist}} and grazing management.{{Cite web |last=Willis |first=Katie |title=Grazing livestock could reduce greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, study shows |url=https://www.ualberta.ca/folio/2021/03/grazing-livestock-could-reduce-greenhouse-gases-in-the-atmosphere-study-shows.html |access-date=2024-04-10 |website=www.ualberta.ca |language=en}}

Measures that increase state revenues from meat consumption/production could enable the use of these funds for related research and development and "to cushion social hardships among low-income consumers". Meat and livestock are important sectors of the contemporary socioeconomic system, with livestock value chains employing an estimated >1.3 billion people.

Sequestering carbon into soil is currently not feasible to cancel out planet-warming emissions caused by the livestock sector. The global livestock annually emits 135 billion metric tons of carbon, way more than can be returned to the soil.{{Cite journal |last1=Wang |first1=Yue |last2=de Boer |first2=Imke J. M. |last3=Persson |first3=U. Martin |last4=Ripoll-Bosch |first4=Raimon |last5=Cederberg |first5=Christel |last6=Gerber |first6=Pierre J. |last7=Smith |first7=Pete |last8=van Middelaar |first8=Corina E. |date=2023-11-22 |title=Risk to rely on soil carbon sequestration to offset global ruminant emissions |journal=Nature Communications |language=en |volume=14 |issue=1 |pages=7625 |doi=10.1038/s41467-023-43452-3 |pmid=37993450 |issn=2041-1723|pmc=10665458 |bibcode=2023NatCo..14.7625W }} Despite this, the idea of sequestering carbon to the soil is currently advocated by livestock industry as well as grassroots groups.{{Cite web |last=Fassler |first=Joe |date=2024-02-01 |title=Research Undermines Claims that Soil Carbon Can Offset Livestock Emissions |url=https://www.desmog.com/2024/02/01/climate-change-livestock-methane-carbon-sequestration-claims/ |access-date=2024-02-02 |website=DeSmog |language=en-US}}

Agricultural subsidies for cattle and their feedstock could be stopped.{{Cite news |last=Carrington |first=Damian |last2= |first2= |date=2021-09-14 |title=Nearly all global farm subsidies harm people and planet – UN |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2021/sep/14/global-farm-subsidies-damage-people-planet-un-climate-crisis-nature-inequality |access-date=2024-03-27 |work=The Guardian |language=en-GB |issn=0261-3077}} A more controversial suggestion, advocated by George Monbiot in the documentary "Apocalypse Cow", is to stop farming cattle completely, however farmers often have political power so might be able to resist such a big change.{{Cite web |date=13 May 2022 |title=George Monbiot: "Agriculture is arguably the most destructive industry on Earth" |url=https://www.newstatesman.com/encounter/2022/05/george-monbiot-agriculture-is-arguably-the-most-destructive-industry-on-earth |access-date=4 June 2022 |website=New Statesman}}

File:ParaguayChaco Clearings for cattle grazing.jpg region of Paraguay]]Grazing can have positive or negative effects on rangeland health, depending on management quality,{{cite book |last1=Bilotta |first1=G. S. |chapter=The impacts of grazing animals on the quality of soils, vegetation, and surface waters in intensively managed grasslands |last2=Brazier |first2=R. E. |last3=Haygarth |first3=P. M. |title=Advances in Agronomy |year=2007 |isbn=9780123741073 |volume=94 |pages=237–280 |doi=10.1016/s0065-2113(06)94006-1}} and grazing can have different effects on different soils{{cite journal |last1=Greenwood |first1=K. L. |last2=McKenzie |first2=B. M. |year=2001 |title=Grazing effects on soil physical properties and the consequences for pastures: a review |journal=Austral. J. Exp. Agr. |volume=41 |issue=8 |pages=1231–1250 |doi=10.1071/EA00102}} and different plant communities.{{cite journal |last1=Milchunas |first1=D. G. |last2=Lauenroth |first2=W. KI. |year=1993 |title=Quantitative effects of grazing on vegetation and soils over a global range of environments |journal=Ecological Monographs |volume=63 |issue=4 |pages=327–366 |doi=10.2307/2937150 |jstor=2937150|bibcode=1993EcoM...63..327M }} Grazing can sometimes reduce, and other times increase, biodiversity of grassland ecosystems.{{cite journal |last1=Olff |first1=H. |last2=Ritchie |first2=M. E. |year=1998 |title=Effects of herbivores on grassland plant diversity |url=https://pure.rug.nl/ws/files/14659214/1998TrendsEcolEvolOlff.pdf |journal=Trends in Ecology and Evolution |volume=13 |issue=7 |pages=261–265 |doi=10.1016/s0169-5347(98)01364-0 |pmid=21238294 |bibcode=1998TEcoE..13..261O |hdl=11370/3e3ec5d4-fa03-4490-94e3-66534b3fe62f}}Environment Canada. 2013. Amended recovery strategy for the Greater Sage-Grouse (Centrocercus urophasianus urophasianus) in Canada. Species at Risk Act, Recovery Strategy Series. 57 pp. In beef production, cattle ranching helps preserve and improve the natural environment by maintaining habitats that are well suited for grazing animals.{{Cite web |last=Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations |title=The contributions of livestock species and breeds to ecosystem services |url=http://www.fao.org/3/i6482e/i6482e.pdf}} Lightly grazed grasslands also tend to have higher biodiversity than overgrazed or non-grazed grasslands.{{Cite web |last=Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations |date=2016 |title=The contributions of livestock species and breeds to ecosystem services |url=http://www.fao.org/3/i6482e/i6482e.pdf |access-date=2021-05-15 |website=FAO}}

Overgrazing can decrease soil quality by constantly depleting it of necessary nutrients.National Research Council. 1994. Rangeland Health. New Methods to Classify, Inventory and Monitor Rangelands. Nat. Acad. Press. 182 pp. By the end of 2002, the US Bureau of Land Management (BLM) found that 16% of the evaluated 7,437 grazing allotments had failed to meet rangeland health standards because of their excessive grazing use.US BLM. 2004. Proposed Revisions to Grazing Regulations for the Public Lands. FES 04-39 Overgrazing appears to cause soil erosion in many dry regions of the world. However, on US farmland, soil erosion is much less on land used for livestock grazing than on land used for crop production. According to the US Natural Resources Conservation Service, on 95.1% of US pastureland, sheet and rill erosion are within the estimated soil loss tolerance, and on 99.4% of US pastureland, wind erosion is within the estimated soil loss tolerance.NRCS. 2009. Summary report 2007 national resources inventory. USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service. 123 pp.File:Two cows grazing.jpg in Colorado]]

Grazing can affect the sequestration of carbon and nitrogen in the soil. This sequestration helps mitigate the effects of greenhouse gas emissions, and in some cases, increases ecosystem productivity by affecting nutrient cycling.{{cite journal |last1=De Mazancourt |first1=C. |last2=Loreau |first2=M. |last3=Abbadie |first3=L. |year=1998 |title=Grazing optimization and nutrient cycling: when do herbivores enhance plant production? |journal=Ecology |volume=79 |issue=7 |pages=2242–2252 |doi=10.1890/0012-9658(1998)079[2242:goancw]2.0.co;2 |s2cid=52234485}} A 2017 meta-study of the scientific literature estimated that the total global soil carbon sequestration potential from grazing management ranges from 0.3–0.8 gigatons CO₂eq per year, which is equivalent to 4–11% of total global livestock emissions, but that "Expansion or intensification in the grazing sector as an approach to sequestering more carbon would lead to substantial increases in methane, nitrous oxide and land use change-induced CO2 emissions".{{cite web |last1=Garnett |first1=Tara |last2=Godde |first2=Cécile |year=2017 |title=Grazed and confused? |url=https://www.tabledebates.org/sites/default/files/2020-10/fcrn_gnc_report.pdf |access-date=11 February 2021 |publisher=Food Climate Research Network |page=64 |quote=The non-peer-reviewed estimates from the Savory Institute are strikingly higher – and, for all the reasons discussed earlier (Section 3.4.3), unrealistic.}} Project Drawdown estimates the total carbon sequestration potential of improved managed grazing at 13.72–20.92 gigatons CO₂eq between 2020–2050, equal to 0.46–0.70 gigatons CO₂eq per year.{{Cite web |date=2020-02-05 |title=Table of Solutions |url=https://drawdown.org/solutions/table-of-solutions |access-date=2023-07-23 |website=Project Drawdown |language=en}} A 2022 peer-reviewed paper estimated the carbon sequestration potential of improved grazing management at a similar level of 0.15–0.70 gigatons CO₂eq per year.{{Cite journal |last1=Bai |first1=Yongfei |last2=Cotrufo |first2=M. Francesca |date=2022-08-05 |title=Grassland soil carbon sequestration: Current understanding, challenges, and solutions |url=https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.abo2380 |journal=Science |language=en |volume=377 |issue=6606 |pages=603–608 |bibcode=2022Sci...377..603B |doi=10.1126/science.abo2380 |issn=0036-8075 |pmid=35926033 |s2cid=251349023}} A 2021 peer-reviewed paper found that sparsely grazed and natural grasslands account for 80% of the total cumulative carbon sink of the world’s grasslands, whereas managed grasslands have been a net greenhouse gas source over the past decade.{{Cite journal |last1=Chang |first1=Jinfeng |last2=Ciais |first2=Philippe |last3=Gasser |first3=Thomas |last4=Smith |first4=Pete |last5=Herrero |first5=Mario |last6=Havlík |first6=Petr |last7=Obersteiner |first7=Michael |last8=Guenet |first8=Bertrand |last9=Goll |first9=Daniel S. |last10=Li |first10=Wei |last11=Naipal |first11=Victoria |last12=Peng |first12=Shushi |last13=Qiu |first13=Chunjing |last14=Tian |first14=Hanqin |last15=Viovy |first15=Nicolas |date=2021-01-05 |title=Climate warming from managed grasslands cancels the cooling effect of carbon sinks in sparsely grazed and natural grasslands |journal=Nature Communications |language=en |volume=12 |issue=1 |pages=118 |bibcode=2021NatCo..12..118C |doi=10.1038/s41467-020-20406-7 |issn=2041-1723 |pmc=7785734 |pmid=33402687}} Another peer-reviewed paper found that if current pastureland was restored to its former state as wild grasslands, shrublands, and sparse savannas without livestock this could store an estimated 15.2–59.9 gigatons additional carbon.{{Cite journal |last1=Hayek |first1=Matthew N. |last2=Harwatt |first2=Helen |last3=Ripple |first3=William J. |last4=Mueller |first4=Nathaniel D. |date=January 2021 |title=The carbon opportunity cost of animal-sourced food production on land |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41893-020-00603-4 |journal=Nature Sustainability |language=en |volume=4 |issue=1 |pages=21–24 |doi=10.1038/s41893-020-00603-4 |issn=2398-9629 |s2cid=221522148}} A study found that grazing in US virgin grasslands causes the soil to have lower soil organic carbon but higher soil nitrogen content.{{cite journal |last1=Bauer |first1=A. |last2=Cole |first2=C. V. |last3=Black |first3=A. L. |year=1987 |title=Soil property comparisons in virgin grasslands between grazed and nongrazed management systems |journal=Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. |volume=51 |issue=1 |pages=176–182 |bibcode=1987SSASJ..51..176B |doi=10.2136/sssaj1987.03615995005100010037x}} In contrast, at the High Plains Grasslands Research Station in Wyoming, the soil in the grazed pastures had more organic carbon and nitrogen in the top 30 cm than the soil in non-grazed pastures.{{cite journal |last1=Manley |first1=J. T. |last2=Schuman |first2=G. E. |last3=Reeder |first3=J. D. |last4=Hart |first4=R. H. |year=1995 |title=Rangeland soil carbon and nitrogen responses to grazing |journal=J. Soil Water Cons. |volume=50 |pages=294–298}} Additionally, in the Piedmont region of the US, well-managed grazing of livestock on previously eroded soil resulted in high rates of beneficial carbon and nitrogen sequestration compared to non-grazed grass.{{cite journal |last1=Franzluebbers |first1=A.J. |last2=Stuedemann |first2=J. A. |year=2010 |title=Surface soil changes during twelve years of pasture management in the southern Piedmont USA |journal=Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. |volume=74 |issue=6 |pages=2131–2141 |bibcode=2010SSASJ..74.2131F |doi=10.2136/sssaj2010.0034}}

In Canada, a review highlighted that the methane and nitrous oxide emitted from manure management comprised 17% of agricultural greenhouse gas emissions, while nitrous oxide emitted from soils after application of manure, accounted for 50% of total emissions.{{Cite journal |last1=Kebreab |first1=E. |last2=Clark |first2=K. |last3=Wagner-Riddle |first3=C. |last4=France |first4=J. |date=2006-06-01 |title=Methane and nitrous oxide emissions from Canadian animal agriculture: A review |journal=Canadian Journal of Animal Science |language=en |volume=86 |issue=2 |pages=135–157 |doi=10.4141/A05-010 |issn=0008-3984|doi-access=free }}

Manure provides environmental benefits when properly managed. Deposition of manure on pastures by grazing animals is an effective way to preserve soil fertility. Many nutrients are recycled in crop cultivation by collecting animal manure from barns and concentrated feeding sites, sometimes after composting. For many areas with high livestock density, manure application substantially replaces the application of synthetic fertilizers on surrounding cropland.McDonald, J. M. et al. 2009. Manure use for fertilizer and for energy. Report to Congress. USDA, AP-037. 53pp. Manure is also spread on forage-producing land that is grazed, rather than cropped.

Also, small-ruminant flocks in North America (and elsewhere) are sometimes used on fields for removal of various crop residues inedible by humans, converting them to food. Small ruminants, such as sheep and goats, can control some invasive or noxious weeds (such as spotted knapweed, tansy ragwort, leafy spurge, yellow starthistle, tall larkspur, etc.) on rangeland.{{cite web |title=Livestock Grazing Guidelines for Controlling Noxious weeds in the Western United States |url=https://www.webpages.uidaho.edu/rx-grazing/Livestock_Graizng_Guidelines(Davison_et_al.%202007).pdf |access-date=24 April 2019 |publisher=University of Nevada}} Small ruminants are also useful for vegetation management in forest plantations and for clearing brush on rights-of-way. Other ruminants, like Nublang cattle, are used in Bhutan to help remove a species of bamboo, Yushania microphylla, which tends to crowd out indigenous plant species.{{Cite web |last=Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations |title=The contributions of livestock species and breeds to ecosystem services |url=http://www.fao.org/3/i6482e/i6482e.pdf}} These represent alternatives to herbicide use.Launchbaugh, K. (ed.) 2006. Targeted Grazing: a natural approach to vegetation management and landscape enhancement. American Sheep Industry. 199 pp.

{{Pie chart

| caption = Biomass of mammals on EarthDamian Carrington, [https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2018/may/21/human-race-just-001-of-all-life-but-has-destroyed-over-80-of-wild-mammals-study "Humans just 0.01% of all life but have destroyed 83% of wild mammals – study"], The Guardian, 21 May 2018 (page visited on 19 August 2018).{{cite journal |doi=10.1126/science.aau1397 |pmid=30213888 |title=Space for nature |journal=Science |volume=361 |issue=6407 |pages=1051 |year=2018 |last1=Baillie |first1=Jonathan |last2=Zhang |first2=Ya-Ping |bibcode=2018Sci...361.1051B |doi-access=free }}

| label1 = Livestock, mostly cattle and pigs

| value1 = 60 | color1 = blue

| label2 = Humans

| value2 = 36 | color2 = red

| label3 = Wild mammals

| value3 = 4 | color3 = green

}}

Meat production is considered one of the prime factors contributing to the current biodiversity loss crisis.{{cite news |last=Woodyatt |first=Amy |date=May 26, 2020 |title=Human activity threatens billions of years of evolutionary history, researchers warn |work=CNN |url=https://www.cnn.com/2020/05/26/world/species-loss-evolution-climate-scn-intl-scli/index.html |access-date=May 27, 2020}}{{Cite journal |last1=Hentschl |first1=Moritz |last2=Michalke |first2=Amelie |last3=Pieper |first3=Maximilian |last4=Gaugler |first4=Tobias |last5=Stoll-Kleemann |first5=Susanne |date=2023-05-11 |title=Dietary change and land use change: assessing preventable climate and biodiversity damage due to meat consumption in Germany |journal=Sustainability Science |language=en |doi=10.1007/s11625-023-01326-z |issn=1862-4057|doi-access=free }} The 2019 IPBES Global Assessment Report on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services found that industrial agriculture and overfishing are the primary drivers of the extinction, with the meat and dairy industries having a substantial impact.{{Cite news |last=McGrath |first=Matt |date=6 May 2019 |title=Humans 'threaten 1m species with extinction' |work=BBC |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-48169783 |access-date=3 July 2019 |quote=Pushing all this forward, though, are increased demands for food from a growing global population and specifically our growing appetite for meat and fish.}}{{cite news |last=Watts |first=Jonathan |date=6 May 2019 |title=Human society under urgent threat from loss of Earth's natural life |work=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2019/may/06/human-society-under-urgent-threat-loss-earth-natural-life-un-report |access-date=3 July 2019 |quote=Agriculture and fishing are the primary causes of the deterioration. Food production has increased dramatically since the 1970s, which has helped feed a growing global population and generated jobs and economic growth. But this has come at a high cost. The meat industry has a particularly heavy impact. Grazing areas for cattle account for about 25% of the world’s ice-free land and more than 18% of global greenhouse gas emissions.}} The global livestock sector contributes a significant share to anthropogenic GHG emissions, but it can also deliver a significant share of the necessary mitigation effort.{{Cite book |url=https://www.fao.org/documents/card/en/c/030a41a8-3e10-57d1-ae0c-86680a69ceea |title=Tackling Climate Change through Livestock |publisher=FAO |year=2013 |isbn=9789251079201}} FAO estimates that the adoption of already available best practices can reduce emissions by up to 30%.

Grazing (especially overgrazing) may detrimentally affect certain wildlife species, e.g. by altering cover and food supplies. The growing demand for meat is contributing to significant biodiversity loss as it is a significant driver of deforestation and habitat destruction; species-rich habitats, such as significant portions of the Amazon region, are being converted to agriculture for meat production.{{cite web |url= https://www.theguardian.com/environment/radical-conservation/2015/oct/20/the-four-horsemen-of-the-sixth-mass-extinction|title=How humans are driving the sixth mass extinction|first=Jeremy |last=Hance|date=October 20, 2015|work=The Guardian |access-date=January 10, 2017}}{{cite journal |last1=Morell |first1=Virginia |year=2015 |title=Meat-eaters may speed worldwide species extinction, study warns |url=https://www.science.org/content/article/meat-eaters-may-speed-worldwide-species-extinction-study-warns |journal=Science |doi=10.1126/science.aad1607}}{{cite journal|first1=B.|last1=Machovina|first2=K. J.|last2=Feeley|first3=W. J.|last3=Ripple|year=2015|title=Biodiversity conservation: The key is reducing meat consumption|journal=Science of the Total Environment|volume= 536|pages=419–431|doi=10.1016/j.scitotenv.2015.07.022|pmid=26231772|bibcode=2015ScTEn.536..419M}} World Resource Institute (WRI) website mentions that "30 percent of global forest cover has been cleared, while another 20 percent has been degraded. Most of the rest has been fragmented, leaving only about 15 percent intact."{{Cite web|url=https://www.wri.org/our-work/topics/forests|title=Forests|website=World Resources Institute|language=en|access-date=2020-01-24}} WRI also states that around the world there is "an estimated 1.5 billion hectares (3.7 billion acres) of once-productive croplands and pasturelands – an area nearly the size of Russia – are degraded. Restoring productivity can improve food supplies, water security, and the ability to fight climate change."{{cite web|url=https://www.wri.org/strategic-plan/tackling-global-challenges|title=Tackling Global Challenges|date=2018-05-04|website=World Resources Institute|access-date=2020-01-24|archive-date=2023-06-09|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230609142150/https://www.wri.org/strategic-plan/tackling-global-challenges|url-status=dead}} Around 25% to nearly 40% of global land surface is being used for livestock farming.{{cite web |url=http://www.cnn.com/2016/12/12/world/sutter-vanishing-help/|title=How to stop the sixth mass extinction |first=John D. |last=Sutter |date=December 12, 2016|work=CNN|access-date=January 10, 2017}}

A 2017 World Wildlife Fund study found that 60% of biodiversity loss can be attributed to the vast scale of feed crop cultivation needed to rear tens of billions of farm animals, which puts enormous strain on natural resources, resulting in extensive loss of lands and species.{{Cite news|last=Smithers|first=Rebecca|date=5 October 2017|title=Vast animal-feed crops to satisfy our meat needs are destroying planet|url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2017/oct/05/vast-animal-feed-crops-meat-needs-destroying-planet|url-status=live|work=The Guardian|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180303143952/https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2017/oct/05/vast-animal-feed-crops-meat-needs-destroying-planet|archive-date=3 March 2018|access-date=8 February 2025}}

A 2022 report from World Animal Protection and the Center for Biological Diversity found that, based on 2018 data, some 235 million pounds (or 117,500 tons) of pesticides are used for animal feed purposes annually in the United States alone, in particular glyphosate and atrazine. The report emphasizes that 100,000 pounds of glyphosate has the potential to harm or kill some 93% of species listed under the Endangered Species Act. Atrazine, which is banned in 35 countries, could harm or kill at least 1,000 listed species. Both groups involved in the report advocate for consumers to reduce their consumption of animal products and to transition towards plant-based diets in order to reduce the growth of factory farming and protect endangered species of wildlife.{{cite news |last=Boyle |first=Louise |date=February 22, 2022 |title=US meat industry using 235m pounds of pesticides a year, threatening thousands of at-risk species, study finds |work=The Independent |location= |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/climate-change/news/pesticides-factory-farm-wildlife-food-chain-vegan-b2017811.html |access-date=February 28, 2022}}

A 2023 study found that a vegan diet reduced wildlife destruction by 66%.

In North America, various studies have found that grazing sometimes improves habitat for elk,{{cite journal|last1=Anderson|first1=E. W.|last2=Scherzinger|first2=R. J.|s2cid=53006161|year=1975|title=Improving quality of winter forage for elk by cattle grazing|journal=J. Range MGT.|volume=25|issue=2|pages=120–125|doi=10.2307/3897442|jstor=3897442|hdl=10150/646985|hdl-access=free}}

blacktailed prairie dogs,{{cite journal|last1=Knowles|first1=C. J.|year=1986|title=Some relationships of black-tailed prairie dogs to livestock grazing|journal=Great Basin Naturalist|volume=46|pages=198–203}}

sage grouse,Neel. L.A. 1980. Sage Grouse Response to Grazing Management in Nevada. M.Sc. Thesis. Univ. of Nevada, Reno.

and mule deer.{{cite journal|last1=Jensen|first1=C. H.|s2cid=81449626|display-authors=etal|year=1972|title=Guidelines for grazing sheep on rangelands used by big game in winter|journal=J. Range MGT.|volume=25|issue=5|pages=346–352|doi=10.2307/3896543|jstor=3896543|hdl=10150/647438|hdl-access=free}}{{cite journal|last1=Smith|first1=M. A.|display-authors=etal|year=1979|title=Forage selection by mule deer on winter range grazed by sheep in spring|journal=J. Range MGT.|volume=32|issue=1|pages=40–45|doi=10.2307/3897382|jstor=3897382|hdl=10150/646509|hdl-access=free}} A survey of refuge managers on 123 National Wildlife Refuges in the US tallied 86 species of wildlife considered positively affected and 82 considered negatively affected by refuge cattle grazing or haying.{{cite journal|last1=Strassman|first1=B. I.|year=1987|title=Effects of cattle grazing and haying on wildlife conservation at National Wildlife Refuges in the United States|url=https://deepblue.lib.umich.edu/bitstream/2027.42/48162/1/267_2005_Article_BF01867177.pdf|journal=Environmental MGT.|volume=11|issue=1|pages=35–44|bibcode=1987EnMan..11...35S|doi=10.1007/bf01867177|hdl=2027.42/48162|s2cid=55282106}} The kind of grazing system employed (e.g. rest-rotation, deferred grazing, HILF grazing) is often important in achieving grazing benefits for particular wildlife species.{{cite journal|last1=Holechek|first1=J. L.|display-authors=etal|year=1982|title=Manipulation of grazing to improve or maintain wildlife habitat|journal=Wildlife Soc. Bull.|volume=10|pages=204–210}}

The biologists Rodolfo Dirzo, Gerardo Ceballos, and Paul R. Ehrlich write in an opinion piece for Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B that reductions in meat consumption "can translate not only into less heat, but also more space for biodiversity." They insist that it is the "massive planetary monopoly of industrial meat production that needs to be curbed" while respecting the cultural traditions of indigenous peoples, for whom meat is an important source of protein.{{cite journal |last1=Dirzo|first1=Rodolfo|last2=Ceballos|first2=Gerardo|last3=Ehrlich|first3=Paul R. |date=2022 |title=Circling the drain: the extinction crisis and the future of humanity|url= |journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B|volume=377|issue=1857 |pages= |doi=10.1098/rstb.2021.0378|pmid=35757873 |pmc=9237743|quote=The dramatic deforestation resulting from land conversion for agriculture and meat production could be reduced via adopting a diet that reduces meat consumption. Less meat can translate not only into less heat, but also more space for biodiversity . . . Although among many Indigenous populations, meat consumption represents a cultural tradition and a source of protein, it is the massive planetary monopoly of industrial meat production that needs to be curbed}}

{{Bar chart|title=Mean eutrophying emissions (water pollution by phosphates) of different foods per 100g of protein|float=right|label_type=Food type|data_type=Eutrophying emissions
(g PO₄^3-eq per 100g protein)|bar_width=20|width_units=em|data_max=360|label1=Beef|data1=301.4|label2=Farmed Fish|data2=235.1|label3=Farmed Crustaceans|data3=227.2|label4=Cheese|data4=98.4|label5=Lamb and Mutton|data5=97.1|label6=Pork|data6=76.4|label7=Poultry|data7=48.7|label8=Eggs|data8=21.8|label9=Groundnuts|data9=14.1|label10=Peas|data10=7.5|label11=Tofu|data11=6.2|label12=|data12=|label13=|data13=}}

Global agricultural practices are known to be one of the main reasons for environmental degradation. Animal agriculture worldwide encompasses 83% of farmland (but only accounts for 18% of the global calorie intake), and the direct consumption of animals as well as over-harvesting them is causing environmental degradation through habitat alteration, biodiversity loss, climate change, pollution, and trophic interactions.{{Cite journal |last=Pena-Ortiz |first=Michelle |date=2021-07-01 |title=Linking aquatic biodiversity loss to animal product consumption: A review |url=https://www.biologicaldiversity.org/campaigns/industrial_animal_agriculture/pdfs/Pena-Ortiz_Literature_Review.pdf |journal=Freshwater and Marine Biology |pages=57}} These pressures are enough to drive biodiversity loss in any habitat, however freshwater ecosystems are showing to be more sensitive and less protected than others and show a very high effect on biodiversity loss when faced with these impacts.

In the Western United States, many stream and riparian habitats have been negatively affected by livestock grazing. This has resulted in increased phosphates, nitrates, decreased dissolved oxygen, increased temperature, turbidity, and eutrophication events, and reduced species diversity.{{cite journal |last1=Belsky |first1=A. J. |display-authors=etal |year=1999 |title=Survey of livestock influences on stream and riparian ecosystems in the western United States |journal=J. Soil Water Cons. |volume=54 |pages=419–431}}{{cite journal |last1=Agouridis |first1=C. T. |display-authors=etal |year=2005 |title=Livestock grazing management impact on streamwater quality: a review |url=http://lshs.tamu.edu/docs/lshs/end-notes/livestock%20grazing%20management%20impacts%20on%20stream%20water%20quality-1995420186/livestock%20grazing%20management%20impacts%20on%20stream%20water%20quality.pdf |journal=Journal of the American Water Resources Association |volume=41 |issue=3 |pages=591–606 |bibcode=2005JAWRA..41..591A |doi=10.1111/j.1752-1688.2005.tb03757.x |s2cid=46525184 |archive-date=2022-12-15 |access-date=2020-01-13 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221215063854/http://lshs.tamu.edu/docs/lshs/end-notes/livestock%20grazing%20management%20impacts%20on%20stream%20water%20quality-1995420186/livestock%20grazing%20management%20impacts%20on%20stream%20water%20quality.pdf |url-status=dead }} Livestock management options for riparian protection include salt and mineral placement, limiting seasonal access, use of alternative water sources, provision of "hardened" stream crossings, herding, and fencing.{{cite web |date=2006-06-28 |title=Pasture, Rangeland, and Grazing Operations - Best Management Practices | Agriculture | US EPA |url=http://www.epa.gov/agriculture/anprgbmp.html |access-date=2015-03-30 |publisher=Epa.gov}}{{cite web |year=2006 |title=Grazing management processes and strategies for riparian-wetland areas. |url=https://www.blm.gov/or/programs/nrst/files/Final%20TR%201737-20.pdf |publisher=US Bureau of Land Management |pages=105 |access-date=2020-01-16 |archive-date=2020-05-22 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200522034449/https://www.blm.gov/or/programs/nrst/files/Final%20TR%201737-20.pdf |url-status=dead }} In the Eastern United States, a 1997 study found that waste release from pork farms has also been shown to cause large-scale eutrophication of bodies of water, including the Mississippi River and Atlantic Ocean (Palmquist, et al., 1997).{{Cite journal |last=Williams |first=C. M. |date=July 2008 |title=Technologies to mitigate {{as written|envir|omental [sic]}} impact of swine production |journal=Revista Brasileira de Zootecnia |language=en |volume=37 |issue=SPE |pages=253–259 |doi=10.1590/S1516-35982008001300029 |issn=1516-3598|doi-access=free }} In North Carolina, where the study was done, measures have since been taken to reduce the risk of accidental discharges from manure lagoons, and since then there has been evidence of improved environmental management in US hog production.Key, N. et al. 2011. Trends and developments in hog manure management, 1998-2009. USDA EIB-81. 33 pp. Implementation of manure and wastewater management planning can help assure low risk of problematic discharge into aquatic systems.

In Central-Eastern Argentina, a 2017 study found large quantities of metal pollutants (chromium, copper, arsenic and lead) in their freshwater streams, disrupting the aquatic biota.{{Cite journal |last1=Regaldo |first1=Luciana |last2=Gutierrez |first2=María F. |last3=Reno |first3=Ulises |last4=Fernández |first4=Viviana |last5=Gervasio |first5=Susana |last6=Repetti |first6=María R. |last7=Gagneten |first7=Ana M. |date=2017-12-22 |title=Water and sediment quality assessment in the Colastiné-Corralito stream system (Santa Fe, Argentina): impact of industry and agriculture on aquatic ecosystems |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11356-017-0911-4 |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |volume=25 |issue=7 |pages=6951–6968 |doi=10.1007/s11356-017-0911-4 |pmid=29273985 |hdl=11336/58691 |s2cid=3685205 |issn=0944-1344|hdl-access=free }} The level of chromium in the freshwater systems exceeded 181.5× the recommended guidelines necessary for survival of aquatic life, while lead was 41.6×, copper was 57.5×, and arsenic exceeded 12.9×. The results showed excess metal accumulation due to agricultural runoff, the use of pesticides, and poor mitigation efforts to stop the excess runoff.

Animal agriculture contributes to global warming, which leads to ocean acidification. This occurs because as carbon emissions increase, a chemical reaction occurs between carbon dioxide in the atmosphere and ocean water, causing seawater acidification.{{Cite journal |date=2012 |title=Ocean acidification |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/43748533 |journal=Journal of College Science Teaching |volume=41 |issue=4 |pages=12–13 |jstor=43748533 |issn=0047-231X}} The process is also known as the dissolution of inorganic carbon in seawater.{{Cite journal |last1=DONEY |first1=SCOTT C. |last2=BALCH |first2=WILLIAM M. |last3=FABRY |first3=VICTORIA J. |last4=FEELY |first4=RICHARD A. |title=Ocean Acidification |date=2009 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/24861020 |journal=Oceanography |volume=22 |issue=4 |pages=16–25 |doi=10.5670/oceanog.2009.93 |jstor=24861020 |issn=1042-8275|hdl=1912/3181 |hdl-access=free }} This chemical reaction creates an environment that makes it difficult for calcifying organisms to produce protective shells and causes seagrass overpopulation.{{Cite journal |last1=Johnson |first1=Ashanti |last2=White |first2=Natasha D. |date=2014 |title=Ocean Acidification: The Other Climate Change Issue |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/43707749 |journal=American Scientist |volume=102 |issue=1 |pages=60–63 |doi=10.1511/2014.106.60 |jstor=43707749 |issn=0003-0996}} A reduction in marine life can have an adverse effect on people’s way of life, since limited sea life may reduce food availability and reduce coastal protection against storms.{{Cite journal |date=2014 |title=Fisheries, Food Security, and Climate Change in the Indo-Pacific Region |journal=Sea Change |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/resrep10916.12 |pages=111–121}}

{{excerpt|Antibiotic use in livestock}}There are concerns about meat production's potential to spread diseases as an environmental impact.{{cite journal |last1=Walker |first1=Polly |last2=Rhubart-Berg |first2=Pamela |last3=McKenzie |first3=Shawn |last4=Kelling |first4=Kristin |last5=Lawrence |first5=Robert S. |date=June 2005 |title=Public health implications of meat production and consumption |journal=Public Health Nutrition |language=en |volume=8 |issue=4 |pages=348–356 |doi=10.1079/PHN2005727 |issn=1475-2727 |pmid=15975179 |s2cid=59196|doi-access=free }}{{cite journal |last1=Hafez |first1=Hafez M. |last2=Attia |first2=Youssef A. |date=2020 |title=Challenges to the Poultry Industry: Current Perspectives and Strategic Future After the COVID-19 Outbreak |journal=Frontiers in Veterinary Science |volume=7 |page=516 |doi=10.3389/fvets.2020.00516 |issn=2297-1769 |pmc=7479178 |pmid=33005639 |doi-access=free}}{{cite journal |last1=Greger |first1=Michael |date=September 2021 |title=Primary Pandemic Prevention |journal=American Journal of Lifestyle Medicine |language=en |volume=15 |issue=5 |pages=498–505 |doi=10.1177/15598276211008134 |issn=1559-8276 |pmc=8504329 |pmid=34646097 |s2cid=235503730}}{{cite journal |last1=Mehdi |first1=Youcef |last2=Létourneau-Montminy |first2=Marie-Pierre |last3=Gaucher |first3=Marie-Lou |last4=Chorfi |first4=Younes |last5=Suresh |first5=Gayatri |last6=Rouissi |first6=Tarek |last7=Brar |first7=Satinder Kaur |last8=Côté |first8=Caroline |last9=Ramirez |first9=Antonio Avalos |last10=Godbout |first10=Stéphane |date=1 June 2018 |title=Use of antibiotics in broiler production: Global impacts and alternatives |journal=Animal Nutrition |language=en |volume=4 |issue=2 |pages=170–178 |doi=10.1016/j.aninu.2018.03.002 |issn=2405-6545 |pmc=6103476 |pmid=30140756}}

{{Main|Sustainable consumption#Sustainable food consumption|Sustainable food system}}

A study shows that novel foods such as cultured meat and dairy, algae, existing microbial foods, and ground-up insects are shown to have the potential to reduce environmental impacts{{cite journal |last1=Rzymski |first1=Piotr |last2=Kulus |first2=Magdalena |last3=Jankowski |first3=Maurycy |last4=Dompe |first4=Claudia |last5=Bryl |first5=Rut |last6=Petitte |first6=James N. |last7=Kempisty |first7=Bartosz |last8=Mozdziak |first8=Paul |title=COVID-19 Pandemic Is a Call to Search for Alternative Protein Sources as Food and Feed: A Review of Possibilities |journal=Nutrients |date=January 2021 |volume=13 |issue=1 |pages=150 |doi=10.3390/nu13010150 |pmid=33466241 |pmc=7830574 |language=en |issn=2072-6643|doi-access=free }}{{cite journal |last1=Humpenöder |first1=Florian |last2=Bodirsky |first2=Benjamin Leon |last3=Weindl |first3=Isabelle |last4=Lotze-Campen |first4=Hermann |last5=Linder |first5=Tomas |last6=Popp |first6=Alexander |title=Projected environmental benefits of replacing beef with microbial protein |journal=Nature |date=May 2022 |volume=605 |issue=7908 |pages=90–96 |doi=10.1038/s41586-022-04629-w |pmid=35508780 |bibcode=2022Natur.605...90H |s2cid=248526001 |language=en |issn=1476-4687|url=https://publications.pik-potsdam.de/pubman/item/item_27105 }}
News article: {{cite news |title=Replacing some meat with microbial protein could help fight climate change |url=https://www.sciencenews.org/article/meat-microbial-protein-climate-change-deforestation-fungi-algae |access-date=27 May 2022 |work=Science News |date=5 May 2022}} – by over 80%.{{cite web |title=Lab-grown meat and insects 'good for planet and health' |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-61182294 |website=BBC News|date=25 April 2022 |access-date=25 April 2022}}{{cite journal |title=Incorporation of novel foods in European diets can reduce global warming potential, water use and land use by over 80% |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s43016-022-00489-9 |journal=Nature Food|date=25 April 2022 |doi=10.1038/s43016-022-00489-9 |access-date=25 April 2022|last1=Mazac |first1=Rachel |last2=Meinilä |first2=Jelena |last3=Korkalo |first3=Liisa |last4=Järviö |first4=Natasha |last5=Jalava |first5=Mika |last6=Tuomisto |first6=Hanna L. |volume=3 |issue=4 |pages=286–293 |pmid=37118200 |hdl=10138/348140 |s2cid=257158726 |hdl-access=free }} Various combinations may further reduce the environmental impacts of these alternatives – for example, a study explored solar-energy-driven production of microbial foods from direct air capture.{{cite journal |last1=Leger |first1=Dorian |last2=Matassa |first2=Silvio |last3=Noor |first3=Elad |last4=Shepon |first4=Alon |last5=Milo |first5=Ron |last6=Bar-Even |first6=Arren |title=Photovoltaic-driven microbial protein production can use land and sunlight more efficiently than conventional crops |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |date=29 June 2021 |volume=118 |issue=26 |pages=e2015025118 |doi=10.1073/pnas.2015025118 |pmid=34155098 |s2cid=235595143 |language=en |issn=0027-8424|pmc=8255800 |bibcode=2021PNAS..11815025L |doi-access=free }} Alternatives are not only relevant for human consumption but also for pet food and other animal feed.

File:Soy-whey-protein-diet.jpg

With care, meat can be substituted in most diets with a wide variety of foods such as fungi{{cite web |title=Plant-based meat substitutes - products with future potential {{!}} Bioökonomie.de |url=https://biooekonomie.de/en/topics/in-depth-reports/plant-based-meat-substitutes-products-future-potential |website=biooekonomie.de |access-date=25 May 2022 |language=en}}{{cite web |last1=Berlin |first1=Kustrim CerimiKustrim Cerimi studied biotechnology at the Technical University in |last2=biotechnology |first2=is currently doing his PhD He is interested in the broad field of fungal |last3=Artists |first3=Has Collaborated in Various Interdisciplinary Projects with |last4=Artists |first4=Hybrid |title=Mushroom meat substitutes: A brief patent overview |url=https://blogs.biomedcentral.com/on-biology/2022/01/28/mushroom-meat-substitutes-a-brief-patent-overview/ |website=On Biology |access-date=25 May 2022 |date=28 January 2022}}{{cite journal |last1=Lange |first1=Lene |title=The importance of fungi and mycology for addressing major global challenges* |journal=IMA Fungus |date=December 2014 |volume=5 |issue=2 |pages=463–471 |doi=10.5598/imafungus.2014.05.02.10 |pmid=25734035 |pmc=4329327 |s2cid=13755426 |issn=2210-6340}} or "meat substitutes". However, substantially reducing meat intake could result in nutritional deficiencies if done inadequately, especially for children, adolescents, and pregnant and lactating women "in low-income countries". A review suggests that the reduction of meat in people's diets should be accompanied by an increase in alternative sources of protein and micronutrients to avoid nutritional deficiencies for healthy diets such as iron and zinc.{{cite journal |last1=Parlasca |first1=Martin C. |last2=Qaim |first2=Matin |title=Meat Consumption and Sustainability |journal=Annual Review of Resource Economics |date=5 October 2022 |volume=14 |pages=17–41 |doi=10.1146/annurev-resource-111820-032340 |issn=1941-1340|doi-access=free }} Meats notably also contain vitamin B₁₂,{{cite journal |last1=Gille |first1=Doreen |last2=Schmid |first2=Alexandra |title=Vitamin B12 in meat and dairy products |journal=Nutrition Reviews |date=February 2015 |volume=73 |issue=2 |pages=106–115 |doi=10.1093/nutrit/nuu011 |pmid=26024497 |issn=1753-4887|doi-access=free }} collagen{{cite journal |last1=Weston |first1=A. R. |last2=Rogers |first2=R. W. |last3=Althen |first3=T. G. |title=Review: The Role of Collagen in Meat Tenderness |journal=The Professional Animal Scientist |date=1 June 2002 |volume=18 |issue=2 |pages=107–111 |doi=10.15232/S1080-7446(15)31497-2 |language=en |issn=1080-7446|doi-access=free }} and creatine.{{cite journal |last1=Ostojic |first1=Sergej M. |title=Eat less meat: Fortifying food with creatine to tackle climate change |journal=Clinical Nutrition |date=1 July 2020 |volume=39 |issue=7 |pages=2320 |doi=10.1016/j.clnu.2020.05.030 |pmid=32540181 |s2cid=219701817 |language=English |issn=0261-5614}} This could be achieved with specific types of foods such as iron-rich beans and a diverse variety of protein-rich foods{{cite journal |last1=Mariotti |first1=François |last2=Gardner |first2=Christopher D. |title=Dietary Protein and Amino Acids in Vegetarian Diets—A Review |journal=Nutrients |date=4 November 2019 |volume=11 |issue=11 |pages=2661 |doi=10.3390/nu11112661 |pmid=31690027 |pmc=6893534 |issn=2072-6643|doi-access=free }} like red lentils, plant-based protein powders{{cite journal |last1=Tsaban |first1=Gal |last2=Meir |first2=Anat Yaskolka |last3=Rinott |first3=Ehud |last4=Zelicha |first4=Hila |last5=Kaplan |first5=Alon |last6=Shalev |first6=Aryeh |last7=Katz |first7=Amos |last8=Rudich |first8=Assaf |last9=Tirosh |first9=Amir |last10=Shelef |first10=Ilan |last11=Youngster |first11=Ilan |last12=Lebovitz |first12=Sharon |last13=Israeli |first13=Noa |last14=Shabat |first14=May |last15=Brikner |first15=Dov |last16=Pupkin |first16=Efrat |last17=Stumvoll |first17=Michael |last18=Thiery |first18=Joachim |last19=Ceglarek |first19=Uta |last20=Heiker |first20=John T. |last21=Körner |first21=Antje |last22=Landgraf |first22=Kathrin |last23=Bergen |first23=Martin von |last24=Blüher |first24=Matthias |last25=Stampfer |first25=Meir J. |last26=Shai |first26=Iris |title=The effect of green Mediterranean diet on cardiometabolic risk; a randomised controlled trial |journal=Heart |date=1 July 2021 |volume=107 |issue=13 |pages=1054–1061 |doi=10.1136/heartjnl-2020-317802 |pmid=33234670 |s2cid=227130240 |language=en |issn=1355-6037}} and high-protein wraps, and/or dietary supplements.{{cite journal |last1=Onwezen |first1=M. C. |last2=Bouwman |first2=E. P. |last3=Reinders |first3=M. J. |last4=Dagevos |first4=H. |title=A systematic review on consumer acceptance of alternative proteins: Pulses, algae, insects, plant-based meat alternatives, and cultured meat |journal=Appetite |date=1 April 2021 |volume=159 |pages=105058 |doi=10.1016/j.appet.2020.105058 |pmid=33276014 |s2cid=227242500 |language=en |issn=0195-6663|doi-access=free }}{{cite journal |last1=Craig |first1=Winston John |title=Nutrition concerns and health effects of vegetarian diets |journal=Nutrition in Clinical Practice|date=December 2010 |volume=25 |issue=6 |pages=613–620 |doi=10.1177/0884533610385707 |pmid=21139125 |issn=1941-2452}}{{Cite web |last1=Zelman |first1=Kathleen M. |last2=MPH |last3=RD |last4=LD |title=The Truth Behind the Top 10 Dietary Supplements |url=https://www.webmd.com/diet/features/truth-behind-top-10-dietary-supplements |access-date=2022-06-18 |website=WebMD |language=en}} Dairy and fish and/or specific types of other foods and/or supplements contain omega 3, vitamin K₂, vitamin D₃, iodine, magnesium and calcium, many of which were generally lower in people consuming types of plant-based diets in studies,{{cite journal |last1=Neufingerl |first1=Nicole |last2=Eilander |first2=Ans |title=Nutrient Intake and Status in Adults Consuming Plant-Based Diets Compared to Meat-Eaters: A Systematic Review |journal=Nutrients |date=January 2022 |volume=14 |issue=1 |pages=29 |doi=10.3390/nu14010029 |pmid=35010904 |pmc=8746448 |language=en |issn=2072-6643|doi-access=free }}{{cite web |date=2012-09-18 |title=Vitamin K |url=https://www.hsph.harvard.edu/nutritionsource/vitamin-k/ |access-date=2024-09-03 |website=The Nutrition Source |publisher=Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health}} though meat-eaters were also shown to be at risk of nutritional deficits.

Nevertheless, observational studies find beneficial effects from plant-based diets (compared to consumption of meat products) on health and mortality rates.{{cite journal |last1=Fadnes |first1=Lars T. |last2=Økland |first2=Jan-Magnus |last3=Haaland |first3=Øystein A. |last4=Johansson |first4=Kjell Arne |title=Estimating impact of food choices on life expectancy: A modeling study |journal=PLOS Medicine |date=8 February 2022 |volume=19 |issue=2 |pages=e1003889 |doi=10.1371/journal.pmed.1003889 |pmid=35134067 |pmc=8824353 |language=en |issn=1549-1676 |doi-access=free }}{{cite journal |title=Quality of plant-based diet determines mortality risk in Chinese older adults |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s43587-022-00178-z |access-date=27 May 2022 |journal=Nature Aging |date=March 2022 |volume=2 |issue=3 |pages=197–198 |language=en |doi=10.1038/s43587-022-00178-z|pmid=37118375 |s2cid=247307240 }}{{cite journal |last1=Jafari |first1=Sahar |last2=Hezaveh |first2=Erfan |last3=Jalilpiran |first3=Yahya |last4=Jayedi |first4=Ahmad |last5=Wong |first5=Alexei |last6=Safaiyan |first6=Abdolrasoul |last7=Barzegar |first7=Ali |title=Plant-based diets and risk of disease mortality: a systematic review and meta-analysis of cohort studies |journal=Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition |date=6 May 2021 |volume=62 |issue=28 |pages=7760–7772 |doi=10.1080/10408398.2021.1918628 |pmid=33951994 |s2cid=233867757 |issn=1040-8398}}{{cite journal |last1=Medawar |first1=Evelyn |last2=Huhn |first2=Sebastian |last3=Villringer |first3=Arno |last4=Veronica Witte |first4=A. |title=The effects of plant-based diets on the body and the brain: a systematic review |journal=Translational Psychiatry |date=12 September 2019 |volume=9 |issue=1 |page=226 |doi=10.1038/s41398-019-0552-0 |pmid=31515473 |pmc=6742661 |language=en |issn=2158-3188}} The consumption of red and processed meat is especially associated with health issues including increased risk of colorectal cancer,{{cite web |date=October 1, 2015 |title=Q&A on the carcinogenicity of the consumption of red meat and processed meat |url=https://www.who.int/features/qa/cancer-red-meat/en/ |access-date=August 7, 2019 |publisher=World Health Organization}}{{cite news |author=Staff |title=World Health Organization – IARC Monographs evaluate consumption of red meat and processed meat |url=http://www.iarc.fr/en/media-centre/pr/2015/pdfs/pr240_E.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151026144543/http://www.iarc.fr/en/media-centre/pr/2015/pdfs/pr240_E.pdf |archive-date=October 26, 2015 |access-date=October 26, 2015 |work=International Agency for Research on Cancer}} cardiovascular disease{{cite journal |last1=Papier |first1=Keren |last2=Knuppel |first2=Anika |last3=Syam |first3=Nandana |last4=Jebb |first4=Susan A. |last5=Key |first5=Tim J. |date=July 20, 2021 |title=Meat consumption and risk of ischemic heart disease: A systematic review and meta-analysis |url=https://ora.ox.ac.uk/objects/uuid:5d4dd1d6-4f33-4edc-9ae0-58c332d10c4f |journal=Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition |volume=63 |issue=3 |pages=426–437 |doi=10.1080/10408398.2021.1949575 |pmid=34284672 |s2cid=236158918}}{{cite journal |last1=Zhang |first1=X. |display-authors=etal |year=2022 |title=Red/processed meat consumption and non-cancer-related outcomes in humans: umbrella review |journal=British Journal of Nutrition |volume=22 |issue=3 |pages=484–494 |doi=10.1017/S0007114522003415 |pmid=36545687 |s2cid=255021441}} and type 2 diabetes.{{cite journal |last1=Giosuè |first1=Annalisa |last2=Calabrese |first2=Ilaria |last3=Riccardi |first3=Gabriele |last4=Vaccaro |first4=Olga |last5=Vitale |first5=Marilena |date=2022 |title=Consumption of different animal-based foods and risk of type 2 diabetes: An umbrella review of meta-analyses of prospective studies |journal=Diabetes Research and Clinical Practice |volume=191 |page=110071 |doi=10.1016/j.diabres.2022.110071 |pmid=36067917}} The U. S. Department of Health's 2015–2020 Dietary Guidelines for Americans recommend a reduction in meat, which is overconsumed among the American public, with a concomitant increase in the consumption of plant foods.{{Cite web |title=2015-2020 Dietary Guidelines |url=https://health.gov/our-work/nutrition-physical-activity/dietary-guidelines/previous-dietary-guidelines/2015 |access-date=December 30, 2022 |website=health.gov}}

{{quote box|We must change our diet. The planet can't support billions of meat-eaters.

| source = David Attenborough{{cite news |last=Dalton |first=Jane|date=August 26, 2020 |title=Go vegetarian to save wildlife and the planet, Sir David Attenborough urges |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/home-news/david-attenborough-vegetarian-vegan-meat-life-on-our-planet-netflix-wildlife-earth-a9689816.html |work=The Independent |access-date=August 27, 2020}}}}

Strategies for implementing meat-reduction among populations include large-scale education and awareness building to promote more sustainable consumption styles. Other types of policy interventions could accelerate these shifts and might include "restrictions or fiscal mechanisms such as meat taxes". In the case of fiscal mechanisms, these could be based on forms of scientific calculation of external costs (externalities currently not reflected in any way in the monetary price){{cite journal |last1=Pieper |first1=Maximilian |last2=Michalke |first2=Amelie |last3=Gaugler |first3=Tobias |title=Calculation of external climate costs for food highlights inadequate pricing of animal products |journal=Nature Communications |date=15 December 2020 |volume=11 |issue=1 |pages=6117 |doi=10.1038/s41467-020-19474-6 |pmid=33323933 |pmc=7738510 |bibcode=2020NatCo..11.6117P |s2cid=229282344 |issn=2041-1723}} to make the polluter pay, e.g. for the damage done by excess nitrogen.{{Cite web |date=2023-01-16 |title=Have we reached 'peak meat'? Why one country is trying to limit its number of livestock |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2023/jan/16/netherlands-european-union-regulations-livestock |access-date=2023-01-16 |website=the Guardian |language=en}} In the case of restrictions, this could be based on limited domestic supply or Personal (Carbon) Allowances (certificates and credits which would reward sustainable behavior).{{cite journal |last1=Fuso Nerini |first1=Francesco |last2=Fawcett |first2=Tina |last3=Parag |first3=Yael |last4=Ekins |first4=Paul |title=Personal carbon allowances revisited |journal=Nature Sustainability |date=December 2021 |volume=4 |issue=12 |pages=1025–1031 |doi=10.1038/s41893-021-00756-w |s2cid=237101457 |language=en |issn=2398-9629|doi-access=free |bibcode=2021NatSu...4.1025F }}{{Cite web |title=A blueprint for scaling voluntary carbon markets {{!}} McKinsey |url=https://www.mckinsey.com/business-functions/sustainability/our-insights/a-blueprint-for-scaling-voluntary-carbon-markets-to-meet-the-climate-challenge |access-date=2022-06-18 |website=www.mckinsey.com}}

Relevant to such a strategy, estimating the environmental impacts of food products in a standardized way – as has been done with a dataset of more than 57,000 food products in supermarkets – could also be used to inform consumers or in policy, making consumers more aware of the environmental impacts of animal-based products (or requiring them to take such into consideration).{{cite news |title=These are the UK supermarket items with the worst environmental impact |url=https://www.newscientist.com/article/2332392-these-are-the-uk-supermarket-items-with-the-worst-environmental-impact/ |access-date=14 September 2022 |work=New Scientist}}{{cite journal |last1=Clark |first1=Michael |last2=Springmann |first2=Marco |last3=Rayner |first3=Mike |last4=Scarborough |first4=Peter |last5=Hill |first5=Jason |last6=Tilman |first6=David |last7=Macdiarmid |first7=Jennie I. |last8=Fanzo |first8=Jessica |last9=Bandy |first9=Lauren |last10=Harrington |first10=Richard A. |title=Estimating the environmental impacts of 57,000 food products |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |date=16 August 2022 |volume=119 |issue=33 |pages=e2120584119 |doi=10.1073/pnas.2120584119 |pmid=35939701 |pmc=9388151 |bibcode=2022PNAS..11920584C |language=en |issn=0027-8424|doi-access=free}}

Young adults that are faced with new physical or social environments (for example, moving away from home) are also more likely to make dietary changes and reduce their meat intake.{{Cite journal |last1=van den Berg |first1=Saskia W. |last2=van den Brink |first2=Annelien C. |last3=Wagemakers |first3=Annemarie |last4=den Broeder |first4=Lea |date=2022-01-01 |title=Reducing meat consumption: The influence of life course transitions, barriers and enablers, and effective strategies according to young Dutch adults |journal=Food Quality and Preference |volume=100 |pages=104623 |doi=10.1016/j.foodqual.2022.104623 |s2cid=248742133 |issn=0950-3293|doi-access=free }} Another strategy includes increasing the prices of meat while also reducing the prices of plant-based products, which could show a significant impact on meat-reduction.{{Cite journal |last1=Collier |first1=Elizabeth S. |last2=Oberrauter |first2=Lisa-Maria |last3=Normann |first3=Anne |last4=Norman |first4=Cecilia |last5=Svensson |first5=Marlene |last6=Niimi |first6=Jun |last7=Bergman |first7=Penny |date=2021-12-01 |title=Identifying barriers to decreasing meat consumption and increasing acceptance of meat substitutes among Swedish consumers |journal=Appetite |language=en |volume=167 |pages=105643 |doi=10.1016/j.appet.2021.105643 |pmid=34389377 |s2cid=236963808 |issn=0195-6663|doi-access=free }} File:Plant-Based_Preferences.pngA reduction in meat portion sizes could potentially be more beneficial than cutting out meat entirely from ones diet, according to a 2022 study. This study revolved around young Dutch adults, and showed that the adults were more reluctant to cut out meat entirely to make the change to plant-based diets due to habitual behaviours. Increasing and improving plant-based alternatives, as well as the education about plant-based alternatives, proved to be one of the most effective ways to combat these behaviours. The lack of education about plant-based alternatives is a road-block for most people - most adults do not know how to properly cook plant-based meals or know the health risks/benefits associated with a vegetarian diet - which is why education among adults is important in meat-reduction strategies.

A July 2019 report by the World Resources Institute suggested that governments around the world should reduce subsidies for meat and dairy production while simultaneously increasing taxes on both, making these products more expensive.{{cite news |last=Christensen |first= Jen |date=17 July 2019 |title=To help save the planet, cut back to a hamburger and a half per week |url=https://www.cnn.com/2019/07/17/health/beef-environment-resources-report/index.html |work=CNN |access-date=8 February 2025}} In the Netherlands, a meat tax of 15% to 30% could show a reduction of meat consumption by 8% to 16%. as well as reducing the amount of livestock by buying out farmers.{{Cite web |date=2022-11-30 |title=Up to 3,000 'peak polluters' given last chance to close by Dutch government |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2022/nov/30/peak-polluters-last-chance-close-dutch-government |access-date=2023-01-16 |website=the Guardian |language=en}} In 2022, the city of Haarlem, Netherlands announced that advertisements for factory-farmed meat will be banned in public places, starting in 2024.{{Cite web |last=Fortuna |first=Carolyn |date=2022-09-08 |title=Is It Time To Start Banning Ads For Meat Products? |url=https://cleantechnica.com/2022/09/08/is-it-time-to-start-banning-ads-for-meat-products/ |access-date=2022-11-01 |website=CleanTechnica |language=en-US}}

A 2022 review concluded that "low and moderate meat consumption levels are compatible with the climate targets and broader sustainable development, even for 10 billion people".

In {{Dts|June 2023}}, the European Commission's Scientific Advice Mechanism published a review of all available evidence and accompanying policy recommendations to promote sustainable food consumption and reducing meat intake. They reported that the evidence supports policy interventions on pricing (including "meat taxes, and pricing products according to their environmental impacts, as well as lower taxes on healthy and sustainable alternatives"), availability and visibility, food composition, labelling and the social environment.{{Cite web |title=Towards sustainable food consumption – SAPEA |url=https://sapea.info/topic/food-consumption/ |access-date=2023-06-29 |language=en-GB}} They also stated:

People choose food not just through rational reflection, but also based on many other factors: food availability, habits and routines, emotional and impulsive reactions, and their financial and social situation. So we should consider ways to unburden the consumer and make sustainable, healthy food an easy and affordable choice.

{{See also|Environmental effects of meat production|Milk#Environmental impact|Deforestation of the Amazon rainforest|Beef#Environmental impact}}The production of cattle has a significant environmental impact, whether measured in terms of methane emissions, land use, consumption of water, discharge of pollutants, or eutrophication of waterways.

{{Bar chart|title=Mean land use of different foods|float=right|label_type=Food Types|data_type=Land Use (m²·year per 100 g protein)|bar_width=20|width_units=em|data_max=185|label1=Lamb and Mutton|data1=185|label2=Beef|data2=164|label3=Cheese|data3=41|label4=Pork|data4=11|label5=Poultry|data5=7.1|label6=Eggs|data6=5.7|label7=Farmed Fish|data7=3.7|label8=Peanuts|data8=3.5|label9=Peas|data9=3.4|label10=Tofu|data10=2.2|label11=|data11=|label12=|data12=|label13=|data13=}}

Significant numbers of dairy, as well as beef cattle, are confined in concentrated animal feeding operations (CAFOs), defined as "new and existing operations which stable or confine and feed or maintain for a total of 45 days or more in any 12-month period more than the number of animals specified"{{cite web |url=http://www.sustainabletable.org/issues/factoryfarming/ |title="What is a Factory Farm?" Sustainable Table |publisher=Sustainabletable.org |access-date=15 October 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120605014129/http://www.sustainabletable.org/issues/factoryfarming/ |archive-date=5 June 2012 }} where "[c]rops, vegetation, forage growth, or post-harvest residues are not sustained in the normal growing season over any portion of the lot or facility."US Code of Federal Regulations 40 CFR 122 They may be designated as small, medium and large. Such designation of cattle CAFOs is according to cattle type (mature dairy cows, veal calves or other) and cattle numbers, but medium CAFOs are so designated only if they meet certain discharge criteria, and small CAFOs are designated only on a case-by-case basis.{{cite web |url=http://www.epa.gov/npdes/pubs/sector_table.pdf |title="Regulatory Definitions of Large CAFOs, Medium CAFO, and Small CAFOs." Environmental Protection Agency Fact Sheet. |access-date=15 October 2013 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924094619/http://www.epa.gov/npdes/pubs/sector_table.pdf |archive-date=24 September 2015 }}

A CAFO that discharges pollutants is required to obtain a permit, which requires a plan to manage nutrient runoff, manure, chemicals, contaminants, and other wastewater pursuant to the US Clean Water Act.US Code of Federal Regulations 40 CFR 122.23, 40 CFR 122.42 The regulations involving CAFO permitting have been extensively litigated.{{ cite court | litigants=Waterkeeper Alliance et al. v. EPA | vol= 399 | reporter= F.3d 486 | court= 2nd cir |date=2005}}{{pb}}{{ cite court | litigants=National Pork Producers Council, et al. v. United States Environmental Protection Agency | vol= 635 | reporter= F. 3d 738 | court=5th Cir | date=2011 }}

Commonly, CAFO wastewater and manure nutrients are applied to land at agronomic rates for use by forages or crops, and it is often assumed that various constituents of wastewater and manure, e.g. organic contaminants and pathogens, will be retained, inactivated or degraded on the land with application at such rates; however, additional evidence is needed to test reliability of such assumptions.Bradford, S. A., E. Segal, W. Zheng, Q. Wang, and S. R. Hutchins. 2008. Reuse of concentrated animal feeding operation wastewater on agricultural lands. J. Env. Qual. 37 (supplement): S97-S115. Concerns raised by opponents of CAFOs have included risks of contaminated water due to feedlot runoff,{{cite web |url=http://www.cals.ncsu.edu/waste_mgt/natlcenter/sanantonio/balvanz.pdf |title=Applying Alternative Technologies to CAFOs: A Case Study |first1=Richard |last1=Koelsch |first2=Carol |last2=Balvanz |first3=John |last3=George|first4=Dan |last4=Meyer|first5=John |last5=Nienaber |first6=Gene |last6=Tinker |access-date=16 January 2018 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131017230339/http://www.cals.ncsu.edu/waste_mgt/natlcenter/sanantonio/balvanz.pdf |archive-date=17 October 2013 }} soil erosion, human and animal exposure to toxic chemicals, development of antibiotic resistant bacteria and an increase in E. coli contamination.{{cite web |url=http://web.missouri.edu/~ikerdj/papers/Fairfield%20IA%20-%20Economics%20of%20CAFOs.htm |title=Ikerd, John. The Economics of CAFOs & Sustainable Alternatives |publisher=Web.missouri.edu |access-date=15 October 2013 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140810081852/http://web.missouri.edu/~ikerdj/papers/Fairfield%20IA%20-%20Economics%20of%20CAFOs.htm |archive-date=10 August 2014 }} While research suggests some of these impacts can be mitigated by developing wastewater treatment systems and planting cover crops in larger setback zones,{{cite web |url=http://dda.delaware.gov/nutrients/Draft_TechStandards/CAFO_BMPassessment.pdf |title=Hansen, Dave, Nelson, Jennifer and Volk, Jennifer. Setback Standards and Alternative Compliance Practices to Satisfy CAFO Requirements: An assessment for the DEF-AG group |access-date=15 October 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120502130352/http://dda.delaware.gov/nutrients/Draft_TechStandards/CAFO_BMPassessment.pdf |archive-date=2 May 2012 }} the Union of Concerned Scientists released a report in 2008 concluding that CAFOs are generally unsustainable and externalize costs.{{cite web |url=http://www.ucsusa.org/assets/documents/food_and_agriculture/cafos-uncovered.pdf |title=Gurian-Sherman, Doug. CAFOs Uncovered: The Untold Costs of Confined Animal Feeding Operations |access-date=15 October 2013 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130126213408/http://www.ucsusa.org/assets/documents/food_and_agriculture/cafos-uncovered.pdf |archive-date=26 January 2013 }}

Another concern is manure, which if not well-managed, can lead to adverse environmental consequences. However, manure also is a valuable source of nutrients and organic matter when used as a fertilizer.{{cite web |url=http://www.fao.org/ag/againfo/programmes/en/lead/toolbox/Tech/20ManMgn.htm |title=Manure management |publisher=FAO |access-date=15 October 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130903054645/http://www.fao.org/ag/againfo/programmes/en/lead/toolbox/Tech/20ManMgn.htm |archive-date=3 September 2013 }} Manure was used as a fertilizer on about {{convert|15.8|e6acre|ha|order=flip|abbr=off}} of US cropland in 2006, with manure from cattle accounting for nearly 70% of manure applications to soybeans and about 80% or more of manure applications to corn, wheat, barley, oats and sorghum. Substitution of manure for synthetic fertilizers in crop production can be environmentally significant, as between 43 and 88 megajoules of fossil fuel energy would be used per kg of nitrogen in manufacture of synthetic nitrogenous fertilizers.Shapouri, H. et al. 2002. The energy balance of corn ethanol: an update. USDA Agricultural Economic Report 814.

Grazing by cattle at low intensities can create a favourable environment for native herbs and forbs by mimicking the native grazers who they displaced; in many world regions, though, cattle are reducing biodiversity due to overgrazing.E.O. Wilson, The Future of Life, 2003, Vintage Books, 256 pages {{ISBN|0-679-76811-4}} A survey of refuge managers on 123 National Wildlife Refuges in the US tallied 86 species of wildlife considered positively affected and 82 considered negatively affected by refuge cattle grazing or haying.Strassman, B. I. 1987. [https://deepblue.lib.umich.edu/bitstream/handle/2027.42/48162/267_2005_Article_BF01867177.pdf?sequence=1 Effects of cattle grazing and haying on wildlife conservation at National Wildlife Refuges in the United States]. Environmental Mgt. 11: 35–44 . Proper management of pastures, notably managed intensive rotational grazing and grazing at low intensities can lead to less use of fossil fuel energy, increased recapture of carbon dioxide, fewer ammonia emissions into the atmosphere, reduced soil erosion, better air quality, and less water pollution.{{-}}

{{Excerpt|Environmental impact of pig farming|paragraphs=1-2|file=no}}

{{Portal|Environment|Agriculture}}

• Agroecology
• Animal-free agriculture
• Animal–industrial complex
• Carbon tax
• Meat price
• Cultured meat
• Economic vegetarianism
• Factory farming divestment
• Environmental impact of agriculture
• Environmental impact of fishing
• Environmental vegetarianism
• Food vs. feed
• Stranded assets in the agriculture and forestry sector
• Sustainable agriculture
• Sustainable diet
• Veganism

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{{Reflist|30em}}

{{Human impact on the environment}}

{{Climate change}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Environmental Effects Of Meat Production}}

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