freezing

{{main|Crystallization}}

Most liquids freeze by crystallization, formation of crystalline solid from the uniform liquid. This is a first-order thermodynamic phase transition, which means that as long as solid and liquid coexist, the temperature of the whole system remains very nearly equal to the melting point due to the slow removal of heat when in contact with air, which is a poor heat conductor.{{citation needed|date=January 2021}} Because of the latent heat of fusion, the freezing is greatly slowed and the temperature will not drop anymore once the freezing starts but will continue dropping once it finishes.{{citation needed|date=January 2021}}

Crystallization consists of two major events, nucleation and crystal growth. "Nucleation" is the step wherein the molecules start to gather into clusters, on the nanometer scale, arranging in a defined and periodic manner that defines the crystal structure. "Crystal growth" is the subsequent growth of the nuclei that succeed in achieving the critical cluster size.

{{main|Supercooling}}

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Crystallization of pure liquids usually begins at a lower temperature than the melting point, due to high activation energy of homogeneous nucleation. The creation of a nucleus implies the formation of an interface at the boundaries of the new phase. Some energy is expended to form this interface, based on the surface energy of each phase. If a hypothetical nucleus is too small, the energy that would be released by forming its volume is not enough to create its surface, and nucleation does not proceed. Freezing does not start until the temperature is low enough to provide enough energy to form stable nuclei. In presence of irregularities on the surface of the containing vessel, solid or gaseous impurities, pre-formed solid crystals, or other nucleators, heterogeneous nucleation may occur, where some energy is released by the partial destruction of the previous interface, raising the supercooling point to be near or equal to the melting point. The melting point of water at 1 atmosphere of pressure is very close to {{convert|0|°C|°F K|abbr=on}}, and in the presence of nucleating substances the freezing point of water is close to the melting point, but in the absence of nucleators water can supercool to {{convert|-40|C|F K}} before freezing.{{cite journal | vauthors = Lundheim R | title = Physiological and ecological significance of biological ice nucleators | journal = Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences | volume = 357 | issue = 1423 | pages = 937–43 | date = July 2002 | pmid = 12171657 | pmc = 1693005 | doi = 10.1098/rstb.2002.1082 }}{{cite journal | vauthors = Franks F | s2cid = 25606767 | title = Nucleation of ice and its management in ecosystems | journal = Philosophical Transactions. Series A, Mathematical, Physical, and Engineering Sciences | volume = 361 | issue = 1804 | pages = 557–74; discussion 574 | date = March 2003 | pmid = 12662454 | doi = 10.1098/rsta.2002.1141 | url = http://rsta.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/361/1804/557.long | format = PDF | bibcode = 2003RSPTA.361..557F | url-access = subscription }} Under high pressure (2,000 atmospheres) water will supercool to as low as {{convert|-70|C|F K}} before freezing.{{Cite journal |vauthors=Jeffery CA, Austin PH |date=November 1997 |title=Homogeneous nucleation of supercooled water: Results from a new equation of state |journal=Journal of Geophysical Research |volume=102 |issue=D21 |pages=25269–25280 |bibcode=1997JGR...10225269J |citeseerx=10.1.1.9.3236 |doi=10.1029/97JD02243}}

{{main|Enthalpy of fusion}}

Freezing is almost always an exothermic process, meaning that as liquid changes into solid, heat and pressure are released. This is often seen as counter-intuitive, since the temperature of the material does not rise during freezing, except if the liquid were supercooled. But this can be understood since heat must be continually removed from the freezing liquid or the freezing process will stop. The energy released upon freezing is a latent heat, and is known as the enthalpy of fusion and is exactly the same as the energy required to melt the same amount of the solid.

Low-temperature helium is the only known exception to the general rule.{{Citation |last1=Atkins |first1=Peter |last2=Jones |first2=Loretta | name-list-style = vanc |year=2008 |title=Chemical Principles: The Quest for Insight |edition=4th |publisher=W. H. Freeman and Company |isbn=978-0-7167-7355-9 |page=236}} Helium-3 has a negative enthalpy of fusion at temperatures below 0.3 K. Helium-4 also has a very slightly negative enthalpy of fusion below 0.8 K. This means that, at appropriate constant pressures, heat must be added to these substances in order to freeze them.{{cite book |last1=Ott |first1=J. Bevan |last2=Boerio-Goates |first2=Juliana | name-list-style = vanc |year=2000 |title=Chemical Thermodynamics: Advanced Applications |publisher=Academic Press |isbn=0-12-530985-6 |pages=92–93}}

{{main|Glass transition}}

Certain materials, such as glass and glycerol, may harden without crystallizing; these are called amorphous solids. Amorphous materials, as well as some polymers, do not have a freezing point, as there is no abrupt phase change at any specific temperature. Instead, there is a gradual change in their viscoelastic properties over a range of temperatures. Such materials are characterized by a glass transition that occurs at a glass transition temperature, which may be roughly defined as the "knee" point of the material's density vs. temperature graph. Because vitrification is a non-equilibrium process, it does not qualify as freezing, which requires an equilibrium between the crystalline and liquid state.

{{Main|Cryobiology}}

{{More citations needed section|date=February 2025}}

Many living organisms are able to tolerate prolonged periods of time at temperatures below the freezing point of water. Most living organisms accumulate cryoprotectants such as anti-nucleating proteins, polyols, and glucose to protect themselves against frost damage by sharp ice crystals. Most plants, in particular, can safely reach temperatures of −4 °C to −12 °C. Certain bacteria, notably Pseudomonas syringae, produce specialized proteins that serve as potent ice nucleators, which they use to force ice formation on the surface of various fruits and plants at about −2 °C.{{cite journal | vauthors = Maki LR, Galyan EL, Chang-Chien MM, Caldwell DR | title = Ice nucleation induced by pseudomonas syringae | journal = Applied Microbiology | volume = 28 | issue = 3 | pages = 456–9 | date = September 1974 | pmid = 4371331 | pmc = 186742 | doi = 10.1128/aem.28.3.456-459.1974 }} The freezing causes injuries in the epithelia and makes the nutrients in the underlying plant tissues available to the bacteria.{{cite journal | vauthors = Zachariassen KE, Kristiansen E | title = Ice nucleation and antinucleation in nature | journal = Cryobiology | volume = 41 | issue = 4 | pages = 257–79 | date = December 2000 | pmid = 11222024 | doi = 10.1006/cryo.2000.2289 }}

Three species of bacteria, Carnobacterium pleistocenium, as well as Chryseobacterium greenlandensis and Herminiimonas glaciei, have reportedly been revived after surviving for thousands of years frozen in ice.{{Cn|date=October 2024}}

Many plants undergo a process called hardening, which allows them to survive temperatures below 0 °C for weeks to months.

The nematode Haemonchus contortus can survive 44 weeks frozen at liquid nitrogen temperatures. Other nematodes that survive at temperatures below 0 °C include Trichostrongylus colubriformis and Panagrolaimus davidi. Many species of reptiles and amphibians survive freezing.

Human gametes and 2-, 4- and 8-cell embryos can survive freezing and are viable for up to 10 years, a process known as cryopreservation.

Experimental attempts to freeze human beings for later revival are known as cryonics.

{{main|Frozen food}}

{{Unreferenced section|date=February 2025}}

Freezing is a common method of food preservation that slows both food decay and the growth of micro-organisms. Besides the effect of lower temperatures on reaction rates, freezing makes water less available for bacteria growth. Freezing is a widely used method of food preservation. Freezing generally preserves flavours, smell and nutritional content. Freezing became commercially viable.

{{Table of Phase Transitions}}

{{div col|colwidth=12em}}

• Degree of frost
• Directional freezing
• Flash freezing
• Fractional freezing
• Freezer
• Freezing air temperature
• Frost
• Micro-pulling-down
• Mpemba effect
• Phase diagram

{{div col end}}

{{reflist}}

{{Wiktionary|freezing}}

• {{commons category-inline|Freezing}}
• {{Merriam-Webster|Freezing}}
• [http://www.ameslab.gov/mpc/video V]used[http://www.ameslab.gov/mpc/video nic compound solidifying/freezing] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151210223620/http://www.ameslab.gov/mpc/video |date=2015-12-10 }}

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Category:Phase transitions

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