gender expression

Although gender expression is often assumed to reflect a person's internal gender identity, the two are not always aligned.{{cite book |last=Summers |first=Randal W. |title=Social Psychology: How Other People Influence Our Thoughts and Actions |publisher=ABC-CLIO |year=2016 |isbn=9781610695923 |page=232}} For example, some transgender people may adopt expressions that differ from their gender identity for reasons of safety or comfort. Gender expression also differs from sex assigned at birth and is independent of sexual orientation.{{cite journal |last=American Psychological Association |date=2015 |title=Guidelines for Psychological Practice With Transgender and Gender Nonconforming People |journal=American Psychologist |volume=70 |issue=9 |pages=832–864 |doi=10.1037/a0039906 |pmid=26653312 |s2cid=1751773}}

Expressions that diverge from conventional norms may be described as gender nonconforming. Common examples include men wearing makeup or dresses, and women with short hair or traditionally masculine attire. Some individuals adopt an androgynous or gender-neutral appearance, blending or rejecting traditional markers of masculinity and femininity.{{cite journal |last1=Kachel |first1=Sven |last2=Steffens |first2=Melanie C. |last3=Niedlich |first3=Claudia |year=2016 |title=Traditional Masculinity and Femininity: Validation of a New Scale Assessing Gender Roles |journal=Frontiers in Psychology |volume=7 |pages=956 |doi=10.3389/fpsyg.2016.00956 |doi-access=free |pmc=4932111 |pmid=27458394}}

Certain terms are used to describe gendered expression within specific subcultures. For instance, in queer women’s communities, "butch" and "femme" refer to more masculine or feminine styles respectively. In men and boys, atypically feminine expression is described as effeminate; in girls and women, as tomboyish.

The term gender expression appears in legal contexts such as the Yogyakarta Principles and is recognized in the human rights laws of countries like Canada.{{cite book |last=Macfarlane |first=Emmett |title=Policy Change, Courts, and the Canadian Constitution |publisher=University of Toronto Press |year=2018 |isbn=9781487523215 |page=391}}

While gender expression does not necessarily connect to sexuality, individuals often are misinterpreted as more masculine if lesbian and more feminine if gay, regardless of the individual's gender expression. These beliefs can lead to people misinterpreting an individual's gender expression based on their sexuality. Studies on adolescents conducted show that gay and lesbian individuals who did not express themselves as their assigned gender were seen as less acceptable. Individuals who expressed themselves with their assigned gender typically faced less social harassment and discrimination. On the other hand, heterosexual males whose gender expression was more feminine than masculine were the most discriminated against.{{cite journal | last1 = Horn | first1 = Stacey S | title = Adolescents' Acceptance of Same-Sex Peers Based on Sexual Orientation and Gender Expression | journal = Journal of Youth and Adolescence | year = 2007 | volume = 36 | issue = 3| pages = 373 | doi = 10.1007/s10964-007-9176-4 | pmid = 27519035 | doi-access = free }}

The heterosexual matrix theory created by gender studies scholar Judith Butler says that people often assume someone's sexuality based on their visible gender and sex. It is one explanation why people tend to assume someone's gender expression based on their sex and sexuality.{{cite journal | last1 = Disch | first1 = Lisa | title = Judith Butler and the Politics of the Performative | journal = Political Theory | year = 1999 | volume = 27 | issue = 4| pages = 545–559 | doi = 10.1177/0090591799027004006 | s2cid = 144841050 }} Some sexologists, especially earlier on in the 20th century, viewed being gay or lesbian as a form of gender inversion. It was thought that same sex attraction meant the person was actually the opposite gender and trapped in the wrong body.

This idea was seen in figures in 1950s New York gay culture: effeminate men referred to as "fairies", as well as butch lesbians. Drag shows also can be considered a way that modifying one's gender expression that may indicate their sexuality, though this is not always the case.{{Cite journal |last=Hillman |first=Betty Luther |date=January 2011 |title="The most profoundly revolutionary act a homosexual can engage in": Drag and the Politics of Gender Presentation in the San Francisco Gay Liberation Movement, 1964–1972 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/40986358 |journal=Journal of the History of Sexuality |volume=20 |issue=1 |pages=153–181 |jstor=40986358 |pmid=21488422 }} Research shows homosexual people are generally more gender nonconforming than heterosexual people, and gender nonconformity throughout life can be an indicator of sexuality.{{Cite journal |date=1 January 2020 |title=Femininity in men and masculinity in women is positively related to sociosexuality |url=http://rave.ohiolink.edu/ejournals/article/369609370 |journal=Personality and Individual Differences |volume=152 |pages=1–5 |via=OhioLINK}}

Although gender expression and sexual orientation are independent, they are often conflated due to stereotypes. Masculine women may be presumed to be lesbians; effeminate men may be assumed to be gay, regardless of actual orientation.{{cite journal |last=Horn |first=Stacey S. |year=2007 |title=Adolescents' Acceptance of Same-Sex Peers Based on Sexual Orientation and Gender Expression |journal=Journal of Youth and Adolescence |volume=36 |issue=3 |pages=363–371 |doi=10.1007/s10964-007-9176-4 |pmid=27519035}} These assumptions contribute to discrimination, bullying, and mental health challenges among those whose gender expression does not conform to expectations.

Judith Butler's concept of the heterosexual matrix suggests that gender expression is often read in alignment with both perceived sex and presumed sexual orientation.{{cite journal |last=Disch |first=Lisa |year=1999 |title=Judith Butler and the Politics of the Performative |journal=Political Theory |volume=27 |issue=4 |pages=545–559 |doi=10.1177/0090591799027004006 |s2cid=144841050}}

Historically, early sexologists sometimes viewed same-sex attraction as a form of "gender inversion"—the belief that gay individuals exhibited the traits of the opposite sex.{{cite book |last=Weinrich |first=James D. |title=Sexual Landscapes: Why We Are What We Are, Why We Love Whom We Love |publisher=Scribner's |year=1987 |isbn=978-0684187051 |pages=276–277}}

People may experience discrimination based on gender expression, regardless of gender identity or sexual orientation. Studies show that gender nonconforming individuals—especially those assigned male at birth—often face greater levels of bullying, assault, and social exclusion.

Discrimination may also extend to healthcare access. Research shows that individuals with non-normative expression can face implicit bias, misgendering, and reduced comfort in medical settings.

A lack of freedom in self-expression can negatively impact confidence and mental health. A 2017 study found that masculine-presenting lesbians forced to adopt traditionally feminine styles reported lower self-esteem and discomfort.

In academic writing, a male who adopts a feminine expression is sometimes described as displaying gynemimesis (adj: gynemimetic), while a female expressing masculinity may be described as exhibiting andromimesis (adj: andromimetic).

{{reflist}}

• Anderson, Steph M (2020). "Gender Matters: The Perceived Role of Gender Expression in Discrimination Against Cisgender and Transgender LGBQ Individuals". Psychology of Women Quarterly.
• Hillman, Betty Luther (2011). " "The most profoundly revolutionary act a homosexual can engage in": Drag and the Politics of Gender Presentation in the San Francisco Gay Liberation Movement, 1964–1972 ". Journal of the History of Sexuality.
• Klára Bártová; Zuzana Štěrbová; Marco Antonio Correa Varella; Jaroslava Varella Valentova (2020). "Femininity in men and masculinity in women is positively related to sociosexuality". Personality and Individual Differences.
• Serano, Julia (2016). Whipping Girl: A transsexual woman on sexism and the scapegoating of femininity (2nd ed.), Berkeley, CA: Seal Press.

• [http://www.juliaserano.com/terminology.html "There Is No Perfect Word: A Transgender Glossary of Sorts"] by Julia Serano
• [http://genderanalysis.net/2014/12/transition-as-gender-freedom-gender-analysis-03/ Gender Analysis: Transition as gender freedom], by Zinnia Jones, 1 December 2014
• [https://genderanalysis.net/2017/06/identifying-with-a-gender-vs-reaffirming-gender-stereotypes/ Gender Analysis: Identifying with a gender vs. reaffirming gender stereotypes], by Zinnia Jones, 1 June 2017
• [http://www.transstudent.org/gender/ The Gender Unicorn – Trans Student Educational Resources]

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Category:Gender roles

Category:Gender identity