genetically modified sperm
Genetically modified sperm (GM sperm) is sperm that has undergone genetic modification for biomedical purposes, including the elimination of genetic diseases or infertility.{{Cite web |url=http://www.applesforhealth.com/PetHealth/afgms5.html |title=Animals From Genetically Modified Sperm |access-date=2009-11-26 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120723054650/http://www.applesforhealth.com/PetHealth/afgms5.html |archive-date=2012-07-23 |url-status=dead }} Although the procedure has been tested on animals such as fish,[http://www.isb.vt.edu/articles/apr0401.htm Genetically modified sperm in fish] pigs,{{Cite journal| doi = 10.1073/pnas.0604938103| pmid = 17101993| year = 2006| last1 = Manzini | first1 = S.| last2 = Vargiolu | first2 = A.| last3 = Stehle | first3 = I.| last4 = Bacci | first4 = M.| last5 = Cerrito | first5 = M.| last6 = Giovannoni | first6 = R.| last7 = Zannoni | first7 = A.| last8 = Bianco | first8 = M.| last9 = Forni | first9 = M.| last10 = Donini | first10 = P.| last11 = Papa | first11 = M.| last12 = Lipps | first12 = H. J.| last13 = Lavitrano | first13 = M.| title = Genetically modified pigs produced with a nonviral episomal vector| volume = 103| issue = 47| pages = 17672–17677| pmc = 1635978| journal = Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America|bibcode = 2006PNAS..10317672M | doi-access = free}} and rabbits,{{Cite journal
| doi = 10.1081/ABIO-100108336
| pmid = 11808625
| year = 2001
| last1 = Wang | first1 = H. J.
| last2 = Lin | first2 = A. X.
| last3 = Zhang | first3 = Z. C.
| last4 = Chen | first4 = Y. F.
| title = Expression of porcine growth hormone gene in transgenic rabbits as reported by green fluorescent protein
| volume = 12
| issue = 2
| pages = 101–110
| journal = Animal Biotechnology
| s2cid = 23132238
}} it remains relatively untested on humans.[http://www.theaustralian.com.au/news/health-science/scientists-five-years-away-from-creating-human-sperm-and-eggs-in-a-laboratory/story-e6frg8gf-1225792318475 Scientists 'five years away' from creating human sperm and eggs in a laboratory] In the case of pigs, the goal of research is to inexpensively produce organs and supplement the shortage of donated human organs.{{cite news | title=Human genes placed in pigs | date=2002-10-22 | url =http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G1-93187334.html | archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20121103021717/http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G1-93187334.html | url-status =dead | archive-date =2012-11-03 | work =The Cincinnati Post | access-date = 2010-02-08 }} Although GM sperm has the potential to detect and treat genetic diseases, it will likely take many years for successful use in patients.
Process
In genetic modification, genes are inserted into living cells in order to change how proteins are created. A viral vector is often used to deliver the gene of interest to the chromosomes in the cell nucleus. Every daughter cell will reflect the genetic modification.{{cite web|title=The Basic Science|url=http://www.geneticsandsociety.org/article.php?id=286|website=Center for Genetics and Society|access-date=2015-04-17|archive-date=2015-04-17|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150417191757/http://www.geneticsandsociety.org/article.php?id=286|url-status=dead}}
Applications
GM sperm is not frequently used in humans but has been extensively tested and studied in animals. This type of modification of the sperm, eggs, or early embryos is known as an Inheritable Genetic Modification. Because the genetic changes are passed onto future generations, Inheritable Genetic Modification is far more consequential than somatic cell modifications.{{cite web|title=Inheritable Genetic Modification|url=http://www.geneticsandsociety.org/article.php?id=286|website=Center for Genetics and Society|access-date=11 April 2015|archive-date=17 April 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150417191757/http://www.geneticsandsociety.org/article.php?id=286|url-status=dead}}
Regulations
{{Main|Regulation of genetic engineering|l1=Regulation of Genetic Engineering}}
Genetic modification of sperm cells, as a type of germline gene transfer, is subject to federal regulation in the United States under the Recombinant DNA Advisory Committee of the National Institutes of Health, as well as the Food and Drug Administration.{{cite web|last1=Hanna|first1=Kathi|title=Germline Gene Transfer|url=http://www.genome.gov/10004764|website=National Human Genome Research Institute|publisher=National Institutes of Health|access-date=10 April 2015}} Regulation in the United States currently prohibits the application or research use of such technologies in humans, but does allow for research and commercial use, prior to approval, in animals.{{cite web|title=Regulations of Genetically Engineered Animals|url=https://www.fda.gov/ForConsumers/ConsumerUpdates/ucm048106.htm|website=U.S. Food and Drug Administration|publisher=Food and Drug Administration|access-date=10 April 2015}}
Controversy
Genetic modification in humans is a contested issue due to the variety of social and ethical issues it raises. One such controversy is the ability to modify the genes of future offspring to decrease the likelihood for certain diseases or modify the expression of chosen traits.{{cite book|title=The Ethics of Inheritable Genetic Modification - A Dividing Line?|last1=Rasko|first1=John|last2=O'Sullivan|first2=Gabrielle|last3=Ankeny|first3=Rachel|date=2006|publisher=Cambridge University Press|doi=10.1017/CBO9780511584275.003}} In a recent case, an American teenager successfully sued a sperm bank, because she had been born with fragile X syndrome.{{cite news | title=Sperm bank sued under product liability law | date=2009-04-08 | url =https://www.newscientist.com/article/mg20227032.400-sperm-bank-sued-under-product-liability-law.html | work =New Scientist | access-date = 2010-02-08 }} Some also cite the promotion of eugenics through certain applications of genetic modification, justifying the moratorium on research and funding in human trials in many countries.{{cite news|last1=Knapton|first1=Sarah|title=Robert Winston: my research could open door to 'risky' eugenics|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/science/science-news/10882336/Robert-Winston-my-research-could-open-door-to-risky-eugenics.html|access-date=11 April 2015|publisher=The Telegraph|date=June 2014}}