geometric algebra#Projection and rejection

There are a number of different ways to define a geometric algebra. Hestenes's original approach was axiomatic,{{sfn|ps=|Hestenes|Sobczyk|1984|p=3–5}} "full of geometric significance" and equivalent to the universal{{efn|A 'universal' algebra is the most "complete" or least degenerate algebra that satisfies all the defining equations. In this article, by 'Clifford algebra' we mean the universal Clifford algebra.}} Clifford algebra.{{sfn|ps=|Aragón|Aragón|Rodríguez|1997|p=101}}

Given a finite-dimensional vector space {{tmath|1= V }} over a field {{tmath|1= F }} with a symmetric bilinear form (the inner product,{{efn|name=inner|The term inner product as used in geometric algebra refers to the symmetric bilinear form on the {{tmath|1= 1 }}-vector subspace, and is a synonym for the scalar product of a pseudo-Euclidean vector space, not the inner product on a normed vector space. Some authors may extend the meaning of inner product to the entire algebra, but there is little consensus on this. Even in texts on geometric algebras, the term is not universally used.}} e.g., the Euclidean or Lorentzian metric) {{tmath|1= g : V \times V \to F }}, the geometric algebra of the quadratic space {{tmath|1= (V, g) }} is the Clifford algebra {{tmath|1= \operatorname{Cl}(V, g) }}, an element of which is called a multivector. The Clifford algebra is commonly defined as a quotient algebra of the tensor algebra, though this definition is abstract, so the following definition is presented without requiring abstract algebra.

; Definition : A unital associative algebra {{tmath|1= \operatorname{Cl}(V, g) }} with a nondegenerate symmetric bilinear form {{tmath|1= g : V \times V \to F }} is the Clifford algebra of the quadratic space {{tmath|1= (V, g) }} if{{sfn|ps=|Lounesto|2001|p=190}}

;* :

;* it contains {{tmath|1= F }} and {{tmath|1= V }} as distinct subspaces

;* {{tmath|1= a^2 = g(a,a)1 }} for {{tmath|1= a \in V }}

;* {{tmath|1= V }} generates {{tmath|1= \operatorname{Cl}(V, g) }} as an algebra

;* {{tmath|1= \operatorname{Cl}(V, g) }} is not generated by any proper subspace of {{tmath|1= V }}.

To cover degenerate symmetric bilinear forms, the last condition must be modified.{{efn|It may be replaced by the condition that{{sfn|ps=|Lounesto|2001|p=191}} the product of any set of linearly independent vectors in {{tmath|1= V }} must not be in {{tmath|1= F }} or that{{sfn|ps=|Vaz|da Rocha|2016|p=58|loc=Theorem 3.1}} the dimension of the algebra must be {{tmath|1= 2^{\dim V} }}.}} It can be shown that these conditions uniquely characterize the geometric product.

For the remainder of this article, only the real case, {{tmath|1= F = \R }}, will be considered. The notation {{tmath| 1=\mathcal{G}(p,q) }} (respectively {{tmath|1= \mathcal{G}(p,q,r) }}) will be used to denote a geometric algebra for which the bilinear form {{tmath|1= g }} has the signature {{tmath|1= (p,q) }} (respectively {{tmath|1= (p,q,r) }}).

The product in the algebra is called the geometric product, and the product in the contained exterior algebra is called the exterior product (frequently called the wedge product or the outer product{{efn|The term outer product used in geometric algebra conflicts with the meaning of outer product elsewhere in mathematics}}). It is standard to denote these respectively by juxtaposition (i.e., suppressing any explicit multiplication symbol) and the symbol {{tmath|1= \wedge }}.

The above definition of the geometric algebra is still somewhat abstract, so we summarize the properties of the geometric product here. For multivectors {{tmath|1= A, B, C\in \mathcal{G}(p,q) }}:

• {{tmath|1= AB \in \mathcal{G}(p,q) }} (closure)
• {{tmath|1= 1A = A1 = A }}, where {{tmath|1= 1 }} is the identity element (existence of an identity element)
• {{tmath|1= A(BC)=(AB)C }} (associativity)
• {{tmath|1= A(B+C)=AB+AC }} and {{tmath|1= (B+C)A=BA+CA }} (distributivity)
• {{tmath|1= a^2 = g(a,a)1 }} for {{tmath|1= a \in V }}.

The exterior product has the same properties, except that the last property above is replaced by {{tmath|1= a \wedge a = 0 }} for {{tmath|1= a \in V }}.

Note that in the last property above, the real number {{tmath|1= g(a,a) }} need not be nonnegative if {{tmath|1= g }} is not positive-definite. An important property of the geometric product is the existence of elements that have a multiplicative inverse. For a vector {{tmath|1= a }}, if $a^2\; \backslash ne\; 0$ then $a^\{-1\}$ exists and is equal to {{tmath|1= g(a,a)^{-1}a }}. A nonzero element of the algebra does not necessarily have a multiplicative inverse. For example, if $u$ is a vector in $V$ such that {{tmath|1= u^2 = 1 }}, the element $\backslash textstyle\backslash frac\{1\}\{2\}(1\; +\; u)$ is both a nontrivial idempotent element and a nonzero zero divisor, and thus has no inverse.{{efn|Given {{tmath|1= u^2 = 1 }}, we have that $(\backslash tfrac\{1\}\{2\}(1\; +\; u))^2$ $=\; \backslash tfrac\{1\}\{4\}(1\; +\; 2u\; +\; uu)$ $=\; \backslash tfrac\{1\}\{4\}(1\; +\; 2u\; +\; 1)$ {{tmath|1= = \tfrac{1}{2}(1 + u) }}, showing that $\backslash tfrac\{1\}\{2\}(1\; +\; u)$ is idempotent, and that $\backslash tfrac\{1\}\{2\}(1\; +\; u)(1\; -\; u)$ $=\; \backslash tfrac\{1\}\{2\}(1\; -\; uu)$ {{tmath|1= = \tfrac{1}{2}(1 - 1) = 0 }}, showing that it is a nonzero zero divisor.}}

It is usual to identify $\backslash R$ and $V$ with their images under the natural embeddings $\backslash R\; \backslash to\; \backslash mathcal\{G\}(p,q)$ and {{tmath|1= V \to \mathcal{G}(p,q) }}. In this article, this identification is assumed. Throughout, the terms scalar and vector refer to elements of $\backslash R$ and $V$ respectively (and of their images under this embedding).

{{see also|Symmetric bilinear form|Exterior algebra}}

File:GA parallel and perpendicular vectors.svg

{{multiple image

| left

| footer = Geometric interpretation of grade-$n$ elements in a real exterior algebra for $n\; =\; 0$ (signed point), $1$ (directed line segment, or vector), $2$ (oriented plane element), $3$ (oriented volume). The exterior product of $n$ vectors can be visualized as any {{tmath|1= n }}-dimensional shape (e.g. {{tmath|1= n }}-parallelotope, {{tmath|1= n }}-ellipsoid); with magnitude (hypervolume), and orientation defined by that on its {{tmath|1= (n - 1) }}-dimensional boundary and on which side the interior is.{{sfn|ps=|Penrose|2007}}{{sfn|ps=|Wheeler|Misner|Thorne|1973|p=83}}

| width1 = 220

| image1 = N vector positive.svg

| caption1 = Orientation defined by an ordered set of vectors.

| width2 = 220

| image2 = N vector negative.svg

| caption2 = Reversed orientation corresponds to negating the exterior product.

}}

For vectors {{tmath|1= a }} and {{tmath|1= b }}, we may write the geometric product of any two vectors {{tmath|1= a }} and {{tmath|1= b }} as the sum of a symmetric product and an antisymmetric product:

: $ab\; =\; \backslash frac\{1\}\{2\}\; (ab\; +\; ba)\; +\; \backslash frac\{1\}\{2\}\; (ab\; -\; ba)\; .$

Thus we can define the inner product of vectors as

: $a\; \backslash cdot\; b\; :=\; g(a,b),$

so that the symmetric product can be written as

: $\backslash frac\{1\}\{2\}(ab\; +\; ba)\; =\; \backslash frac\{1\}\{2\}\; \backslash left((a\; +\; b)^2\; -\; a^2\; -\; b^2\backslash right)\; =\; a\; \backslash cdot\; b\; .$

Conversely, {{tmath|1= g }} is completely determined by the algebra. The antisymmetric part is the exterior product of the two vectors, the product of the contained exterior algebra:

: $a\; \backslash wedge\; b\; :=\; \backslash frac\{1\}\{2\}(ab\; -\; ba)\; =\; -(b\; \backslash wedge\; a)\; .$

Then by simple addition:

: $ab=a\; \backslash cdot\; b\; +\; a\; \backslash wedge\; b$ the ungeneralized or vector form of the geometric product.

The inner and exterior products are associated with familiar concepts from standard vector algebra. Geometrically, $a$ and $b$ are parallel if their geometric product is equal to their inner product, whereas $a$ and $b$ are perpendicular if their geometric product is equal to their exterior product. In a geometric algebra for which the square of any nonzero vector is positive, the inner product of two vectors can be identified with the dot product of standard vector algebra. The exterior product of two vectors can be identified with the signed area enclosed by a parallelogram the sides of which are the vectors. The cross product of two vectors in $3$ dimensions with positive-definite quadratic form is closely related to their exterior product.

Most instances of geometric algebras of interest have a nondegenerate quadratic form. If the quadratic form is fully degenerate, the inner product of any two vectors is always zero, and the geometric algebra is then simply an exterior algebra. Unless otherwise stated, this article will treat only nondegenerate geometric algebras.

The exterior product is naturally extended as an associative bilinear binary operator between any two elements of the algebra, satisfying the identities

: $\backslash begin\{align\}$

1 \wedge a_i &= a_i \wedge 1 = a_i \\

a_1 \wedge a_2\wedge\cdots\wedge a_r &= \frac{1}{r!}\sum_{\sigma\in\mathfrak{S}_r} \operatorname{sgn}(\sigma) a_{\sigma(1)}a_{\sigma(2)} \cdots a_{\sigma(r)},

\end{align}

where the sum is over all permutations of the indices, with $\backslash operatorname\{sgn\}(\backslash sigma)$ the sign of the permutation, and $a\_i$ are vectors (not general elements of the algebra). Since every element of the algebra can be expressed as the sum of products of this form, this defines the exterior product for every pair of elements of the algebra. It follows from the definition that the exterior product forms an alternating algebra.

The equivalent structure equation for Clifford algebra is{{sfn|ps=|Wilmot|1988a|p=2338}}{{sfn|ps=|Wilmot|1988b|p=2346}}

: $a\_1\; a\_2\; a\_3\; \backslash dots\; a\_n\; =\; \backslash sum^\{[\backslash frac\{n\}2]\}\_\{i=0\}\; \backslash sum\_\{\backslash mu\backslash in\{\}\backslash mathcal\{C\}\}$

(-1)^k \operatorname{Pf}(a_{\mu_1}\cdot a_{\mu_2},\dots,a_{\mu_{2i-1}} \cdot a_{\mu_{2i}})

a_{\mu_{2i+1}}\land\dots\land a_{\mu_n}

where $\backslash operatorname\{Pf\}(A)$ is the Pfaffian of {{tmath|1= A }} and $\backslash mathcal\{C\}\; =\; \backslash binom\{n\}\{2i\}$ provides combinations, {{tmath|1= \mu }}, of {{tmath|1= n }} indices divided into {{tmath|1= 2i }} and {{tmath|1= n - 2i }} parts and {{tmath|1= k }} is the parity of the combination.

The Pfaffian provides a metric for the exterior algebra and, as pointed out by Claude Chevalley, Clifford algebra reduces to the exterior algebra with a zero quadratic form.{{sfn|ps=|Chevalley|1991}} The role the Pfaffian plays can be understood from a geometric viewpoint by developing Clifford algebra from simplices.{{sfn|ps=|Wilmot|2023}} This derivation provides a better connection between Pascal's triangle and simplices because it provides an interpretation of the first column of ones.

A multivector that is the exterior product of $r$ linearly independent vectors is called a blade, and is said to be of grade {{tmath|1= r }}.{{efn|Grade is a synonym for degree of a homogeneous element under the grading as an algebra with the exterior product (a {{tmath|1= \mathrm{Z} }}-grading), and not under the geometric product.}} A multivector that is the sum of blades of grade $r$ is called a (homogeneous) multivector of grade {{tmath|1= r }}. From the axioms, with closure, every multivector of the geometric algebra is a sum of blades.

Consider a set of $r$ linearly independent vectors $\backslash \{a\_1,\backslash ldots,a\_r\backslash \}$ spanning an {{tmath|1= r }}-dimensional subspace of the vector space. With these, we can define a real symmetric matrix (in the same way as a Gramian matrix)

: $[\backslash mathbf\{A\}]\_\{ij\}\; =\; a\_i\; \backslash cdot\; a\_j$

By the spectral theorem, $\backslash mathbf\{A\}$ can be diagonalized to diagonal matrix $\backslash mathbf\{D\}$ by an orthogonal matrix $\backslash mathbf\{O\}$ via

: $\backslash sum\_\{k,l\}[\backslash mathbf\{O\}]\_\{ik\}[\backslash mathbf\{A\}]\_\{kl\}[\backslash mathbf\{O\}^\{\backslash mathrm\{T\}\}]\_\{lj\}=\backslash sum\_\{k,l\}[\backslash mathbf\{O\}]\_\{ik\}[\backslash mathbf\{O\}]\_\{jl\}[\backslash mathbf\{A\}]\_\{kl\}=[\backslash mathbf\{D\}]\_\{ij\}$

Define a new set of vectors {{tmath|1= \{e_1, \ldots,e_r\} }}, known as orthogonal basis vectors, to be those transformed by the orthogonal matrix:

: $e\_i=\backslash sum\_j[\backslash mathbf\{O\}]\_\{ij\}a\_j$

Since orthogonal transformations preserve inner products, it follows that $e\_i\backslash cdot\; e\_j=[\backslash mathbf\{D\}]\_\{ij\}$ and thus the $\backslash \{e\_1,\; \backslash ldots,\; e\_r\backslash \}$ are perpendicular. In other words, the geometric product of two distinct vectors $e\_i\; \backslash ne\; e\_j$ is completely specified by their exterior product, or more generally

: $\backslash begin\{array\}\{rl\}$

e_1e_2\cdots e_r &= e_1 \wedge e_2 \wedge \cdots \wedge e_r \\

&= \left(\sum_j [\mathbf{O}]_{1j}a_j\right) \wedge \left(\sum_j [\mathbf{O}]_{2j}a_j \right) \wedge \cdots \wedge \left(\sum_j [\mathbf{O}]_{rj}a_j\right) \\

&= (\det \mathbf{O}) a_1 \wedge a_2 \wedge \cdots \wedge a_r

\end{array}

Therefore, every blade of grade $r$ can be written as the exterior product of $r$ vectors. More generally, if a degenerate geometric algebra is allowed, then the orthogonal matrix is replaced by a block matrix that is orthogonal in the nondegenerate block, and the diagonal matrix has zero-valued entries along the degenerate dimensions. If the new vectors of the nondegenerate subspace are normalized according to

: $\backslash widehat\{e\_i\}=\backslash frac\{1\}\{\backslash sqrt$

then these normalized vectors must square to $+1$ or {{tmath|1= -1 }}. By Sylvester's law of inertia, the total number of {{tmath|1= +1 }} and the total number of {{tmath|1= -1 }}s along the diagonal matrix is invariant. By extension, the total number $p$ of these vectors that square to $+1$ and the total number $q$ that square to $-1$ is invariant. (The total number of basis vectors that square to zero is also invariant, and may be nonzero if the degenerate case is allowed.) We denote this algebra {{tmath|1= \mathcal{G}(p,q) }}. For example, $\backslash mathcal\{G\}(3,0)$ models three-dimensional Euclidean space, $\backslash mathcal\{G\}(1,3)$ relativistic spacetime and $\backslash mathcal\{G\}(4,1)$ a conformal geometric algebra of a three-dimensional space.

The set of all possible products of $n$ orthogonal basis vectors with indices in increasing order, including $1$ as the empty product, forms a basis for the entire geometric algebra (an analogue of the PBW theorem). For example, the following is a basis for the geometric algebra {{tmath|1= \mathcal{G}(3,0) }}:

: $\backslash \{1,\; e\_1,\; e\_2,\; e\_3,\; e\_1e\_2,\; e\_2e\_3,\; e\_3e\_1,\; e\_1e\_2e\_3\backslash \}$

A basis formed this way is called a standard basis for the geometric algebra, and any other orthogonal basis for $V$ will produce another standard basis. Each standard basis consists of $2^n$ elements. Every multivector of the geometric algebra can be expressed as a linear combination of the standard basis elements. If the standard basis elements are $\backslash \{\; B\_i\; \backslash mid\; i\; \backslash in\; S\; \backslash \}$ with $S$ being an index set, then the geometric product of any two multivectors is

: $\backslash left(\; \backslash sum\_i\; \backslash alpha\_i\; B\_i\; \backslash right)\; \backslash left(\; \backslash sum\_j\; \backslash beta\_j\; B\_j\; \backslash right)\; =\; \backslash sum\_\{i,j\}\; \backslash alpha\_i\backslash beta\_j\; B\_i\; B\_j\; .$

The terminology "$k$-vector" is often encountered to describe multivectors containing elements of only one grade. In higher dimensional space, some such multivectors are not blades (cannot be factored into the exterior product of $k$ vectors). By way of example, $e\_1\; \backslash wedge\; e\_2\; +\; e\_3\; \backslash wedge\; e\_4$ in $\backslash mathcal\{G\}(4,0)$ cannot be factored; typically, however, such elements of the algebra do not yield to geometric interpretation as objects, although they may represent geometric quantities such as rotations. Only {{tmath|1= 0 }}-, {{tmath|1= 1 }}-, {{tmath|1= (n-1) }}- and {{tmath|1= n }}-vectors are always blades in {{tmath|1= n }}-space.

A {{tmath|1= k }}-versor is a multivector that can be expressed as the geometric product of $k$ invertible vectors.{{efn|"reviving and generalizing somewhat a term from hamilton's quaternion calculus which has fallen into disuse" Hestenes defined a {{tmath|1= k }}-versor as a multivector which can be factored into a product of $k$ vectors.{{sfn|ps=|Hestenes|Sobczyk|1984|p=103}}}}{{sfn|ps=|Dorst|Fontijne|Mann|2007|p=204}} Unit quaternions (originally called versors by Hamilton) may be identified with rotors in 3D space in much the same way as real 2D rotors subsume complex numbers; for the details refer to Dorst.{{sfn|ps=|Dorst|Fontijne|Mann|2007|pp=177–182}}

Some authors use the term "versor product" to refer to the frequently occurring case where an operand is "sandwiched" between operators. The descriptions for rotations and reflections, including their outermorphisms, are examples of such sandwiching. These outermorphisms have a particularly simple algebraic form.{{efn|Only the outermorphisms of linear transformations that respect the bilinear form fit this description; outermorphisms are not in general expressible in terms of the algebraic operations.}} Specifically, a mapping of vectors of the form

: $V\; \backslash to\; V\; :\; a\; \backslash mapsto\; RaR^\{-1\}$ extends to the outermorphism $\backslash mathcal\{G\}(V)\; \backslash to\; \backslash mathcal\{G\}(V)\; :\; A\; \backslash mapsto\; RAR^\{-1\}.$

Since both operators and operand are versors there is potential for alternative examples such as rotating a rotor or reflecting a spinor always provided that some geometrical or physical significance can be attached to such operations.

By the Cartan–Dieudonné theorem we have that every isometry can be given as reflections in hyperplanes and since composed reflections provide rotations then we have that orthogonal transformations are versors.

In group terms, for a real, non-degenerate {{tmath|1= \mathcal{G}(p,q) }}, having identified the group $\backslash mathcal\{G\}^\backslash times$ as the group of all invertible elements of {{tmath|1= \mathcal{G} }}, Lundholm gives a proof that the "versor group" $\backslash \{\; v\_1\; v\_2\; \backslash cdots\; v\_k\; \backslash in\; \backslash mathcal\{G\}\; \backslash mid\; v\_i\; \backslash in\; V^\backslash times\backslash \}$ (the set of invertible versors) is equal to the Lipschitz group $\backslash Gamma$ ({{aka}} Clifford group, although Lundholm deprecates this usage).{{sfn|ps=|Lundholm|Svensson|2009|pp=58 et seq}}

We denote the grade involution as {{tmath|1= \widehat{S} }} and reversion as {{tmath|1= \widetilde{S} }}.

Although the Lipschitz group (defined as {{tmath|1= \{ S \in \mathcal{G}^{\times} \mid \widehat{S} V S^{-1} \subseteq V \} }}) and the versor group (defined as {{tmath|1= \textstyle \{ \prod_{i=0}^{k} v_i \mid v_i \in V^{\times}, k \in \N \} }}) have divergent definitions, they are the same group. Lundholm defines the {{tmath|1= \operatorname{Pin} }}, {{tmath|1= \operatorname{Spin} }}, and {{tmath|1= \operatorname{Spin}^{+} }} subgroups of the Lipschitz group.{{sfn|ps=|Lundholm|Svensson|2009|p=58}}

Multiple analyses of spinors use GA as a representation.{{sfn|ps=|Francis|Kosowsky|2008}}

A {{tmath|1= \Z }}-graded vector space structure can be established on a geometric algebra by use of the exterior product that is naturally induced by the geometric product.

Since the geometric product and the exterior product are equal on orthogonal vectors, this grading can be conveniently constructed by using an orthogonal basis {{tmath|1= \{e_1,\ldots,e_n\} }}.

Elements of the geometric algebra that are scalar multiples of $1$ are of grade $0$ and are called scalars. Elements that are in the span of $\backslash \{e\_1,\backslash ldots,e\_n\backslash \}$ are of grade {{tmath|1= 1 }} and are the ordinary vectors. Elements in the span of mixed grade. The grading of multivectors is independent of the basis chosen originally.

This is a grading as a vector space, but not as an algebra. Because the product of an {{tmath|1= r }}-blade and an {{tmath|1= s }}-blade is contained in the span of $0$ through {{tmath|1= r+s }}-blades, the geometric algebra is a filtered algebra.

A multivector $A$ may be decomposed with the grade-projection operator {{tmath|1= \langle A \rangle _r }}, which outputs the grade-{{tmath|1= r }} portion of {{tmath|1= A }}. As a result:

: $A\; =\; \backslash sum\_\{r=0\}^\{n\}\; \backslash langle\; A\; \backslash rangle\; \_r$

As an example, the geometric product of two vectors $a\; b\; =\; a\; \backslash cdot\; b\; +\; a\; \backslash wedge\; b\; =\; \backslash langle\; a\; b\; \backslash rangle\_0\; +\; \backslash langle\; a\; b\; \backslash rangle\_2$ since $\backslash langle\; a\; b\; \backslash rangle\_0=a\backslash cdot\; b$ and $\backslash langle\; a\; b\; \backslash rangle\_2\; =\; a\backslash wedge\; b$ and {{tmath|1= \langle a b \rangle_i=0 }}, for $i$ other than $0$ and {{tmath|1= 2 }}.

A multivector $A$ may also be decomposed into even and odd components, which may respectively be expressed as the sum of the even and the sum of the odd grade components above:

: $A^\{[0]\}\; =\; \backslash langle\; A\; \backslash rangle\; \_0\; +\; \backslash langle\; A\; \backslash rangle\; \_2\; +\; \backslash langle\; A\; \backslash rangle\; \_4\; +\; \backslash cdots$

: $A^\{[1]\}\; =\; \backslash langle\; A\; \backslash rangle\; \_1\; +\; \backslash langle\; A\; \backslash rangle\; \_3\; +\; \backslash langle\; A\; \backslash rangle\; \_5\; +\; \backslash cdots$

This is the result of forgetting structure from a {{tmath|1= \mathrm{Z} }}-graded vector space to {{tmath|1= \mathrm{Z}_2 }}-graded vector space. The geometric product respects this coarser grading. Thus in addition to being a {{tmath|1= \mathrm{Z}_2 }}-graded vector space, the geometric algebra is a {{tmath|1= \mathrm{Z}_2 }}-graded algebra, {{aka}} a superalgebra.

Restricting to the even part, the product of two even elements is also even. This means that the even multivectors defines an even subalgebra. The even subalgebra of an {{tmath|1= n }}-dimensional geometric algebra is algebra-isomorphic (without preserving either filtration or grading) to a full geometric algebra of $(n-1)$ dimensions. Examples include $\backslash mathcal\{G\}^\{[0]\}(2,0)\; \backslash cong\; \backslash mathcal\{G\}(0,1)$ and {{tmath|1= \mathcal{G}^{[0]}(1,3) \cong \mathcal{G}(3,0) }}.

{{see also|Grassmannian}}

Geometric algebra represents subspaces of $V$ as blades, and so they coexist in the same algebra with vectors from {{tmath|1= V }}. A {{tmath|1= k }}-dimensional subspace $W$ of $V$ is represented by taking an orthogonal basis $\backslash \{b\_1,b\_2,\backslash ldots,\; b\_k\backslash \}$ and using the geometric product to form the blade {{tmath|1= D = b_1b_2\cdots b_k }}. There are multiple blades representing {{tmath|1= W }}; all those representing $W$ are scalar multiples of {{tmath|1= D }}. These blades can be separated into two sets: positive multiples of $D$ and negative multiples of {{tmath|1= D }}. The positive multiples of $D$ are said to have the same orientation as {{tmath|1= D }}, and the negative multiples the opposite orientation.

Blades are important since geometric operations such as projections, rotations and reflections depend on the factorability via the exterior product that (the restricted class of) {{tmath|1= n }}-blades provide but that (the generalized class of) grade-{{tmath|1= n}} multivectors do not when {{tmath|1= n \ge 4 }}.

Unit pseudoscalars are blades that play important roles in GA. A unit pseudoscalar for a non-degenerate subspace $W$ of $V$ is a blade that is the product of the members of an orthonormal basis for {{tmath|1= W }}. It can be shown that if $I$ and $I\text{'}$ are both unit pseudoscalars for {{tmath|1= W }}, then $I\; =\; \backslash pm\; I\text{'}$ and {{tmath|1= I^2 = \pm 1 }}. If one doesn't choose an orthonormal basis for {{tmath|1= W }}, then the Plücker embedding gives a vector in the exterior algebra but only up to scaling. Using the vector space isomorphism between the geometric algebra and exterior algebra, this gives the equivalence class of $\backslash alpha\; I$ for all {{tmath|1= \alpha \neq 0 }}. Orthonormality gets rid of this ambiguity except for the signs above.

Suppose the geometric algebra $\backslash mathcal\{G\}(n,0)$ with the familiar positive definite inner product on $\backslash R^n$ is formed. Given a plane (two-dimensional subspace) of {{tmath|1= \R^n }}, one can find an orthonormal basis $\backslash \{\; b\_1,\; b\_2\; \backslash \}$ spanning the plane, and thus find a unit pseudoscalar $I\; =\; b\_1\; b\_2$ representing this plane. The geometric product of any two vectors in the span of $b\_1$ and $b\_2$ lies in {{tmath|1= \{ \alpha_0 + \alpha_1 I \mid \alpha_i \in \R \} }}, that is, it is the sum of a {{tmath|1= 0 }}-vector and a {{tmath|1= 2 }}-vector.

By the properties of the geometric product, {{tmath|1= I^2 = b_1 b_2 b_1 b_2 = -b_1 b_2 b_2 b_1 = -1 }}. The resemblance to the imaginary unit is not incidental: the subspace $\backslash \{\; \backslash alpha\_0\; +\; \backslash alpha\_1\; I\; \backslash mid\; \backslash alpha\_i\; \backslash in\; \backslash R\; \backslash \}$ is {{tmath|1= \R }}-algebra isomorphic to the complex numbers. In this way, a copy of the complex numbers is embedded in the geometric algebra for each two-dimensional subspace of $V$ on which the quadratic form is definite.

It is sometimes possible to identify the presence of an imaginary unit in a physical equation. Such units arise from one of the many quantities in the real algebra that square to {{tmath|1= -1 }}, and these have geometric significance because of the properties of the algebra and the interaction of its various subspaces.

In {{tmath|1= \mathcal{G}(3,0) }}, a further familiar case occurs. Given a standard basis consisting of orthonormal vectors $e\_i$ of {{tmath|1= V }}, the set of all {{tmath|1= 2 }}-vectors is spanned by

: $\backslash \{\; e\_3\; e\_2\; ,\; e\_1\; e\_3\; ,\; e\_2\; e\_1\; \backslash \}\; .$

Labelling these {{tmath|1= i }}, $j$ and $k$ (momentarily deviating from our uppercase convention), the subspace generated by {{tmath|1= 0 }}-vectors and {{tmath|1= 2 }}-vectors is exactly {{tmath|1= \{ \alpha_0 + i \alpha_1 + j \alpha_2 + k \alpha_3 \mid \alpha_i \in \R\} }}. This set is seen to be the even subalgebra of {{tmath|1= \mathcal{G}(3,0) }}, and furthermore is isomorphic as an {{tmath|1= \R }}-algebra to the quaternions, another important algebraic system.

It is common practice to extend the exterior product on vectors to the entire algebra. This may be done through the use of the above-mentioned grade projection operator:

: $C\; \backslash wedge\; D\; :=\; \backslash sum\_\{r,s\}\backslash langle\; \backslash langle\; C\; \backslash rangle\_r\; \backslash langle\; D\; \backslash rangle\_s\; \backslash rangle\_\{r+s\}$     (the exterior product)

This generalization is consistent with the above definition involving antisymmetrization. Another generalization related to the exterior product is the commutator product:

: $C\; \backslash times\; D\; :=\; \backslash tfrac\{1\}\{2\}(CD-DC)$     (the commutator product)

The regressive product is the dual of the exterior product (respectively corresponding to the "meet" and "join" in this context).{{efn|[...] the exterior product operation and the join relation have essentially the same meaning. The Grassmann–Cayley algebra regards the meet relation as its counterpart and gives a unifying framework in which these two operations have equal footing [...] Grassmann himself defined the meet operation as the dual of the exterior product operation, but later mathematicians defined the meet operator independently of the exterior product through a process called shuffle, and the meet operation is termed the shuffle product. It is shown that this is an antisymmetric operation that satisfies associativity, defining an algebra in its own right. Thus, the Grassmann–Cayley algebra has two algebraic structures simultaneously: one based on the exterior product (or join), the other based on the shuffle product (or meet). Hence, the name "double algebra", and the two are shown to be dual to each other.{{sfn|ps=|Kanatani|2015|pp=112–113}}}} The dual specification of elements permits, for blades {{tmath|1= C }} and {{tmath|1= D }}, the intersection (or meet) where the duality is to be taken relative to the a blade containing both {{tmath|1= C }} and {{tmath|1= D }} (the smallest such blade being the join).{{sfn|ps=|Dorst|Lasenby|2011|p=443}}

: $C\; \backslash vee\; D\; :=\; ((CI^\{-1\})\; \backslash wedge\; (DI^\{-1\}))I$

with {{tmath|1= I }} the unit pseudoscalar of the algebra. The regressive product, like the exterior product, is associative.{{sfn|ps=|Vaz|da Rocha|2016|loc=§2.8}}

The inner product on vectors can also be generalized, but in more than one non-equivalent way. The paper {{Harvard citation|Dorst|2002}} gives a full treatment of several different inner products developed for geometric algebras and their interrelationships, and the notation is taken from there. Many authors use the same symbol as for the inner product of vectors for their chosen extension (e.g. Hestenes and Perwass). No consistent notation has emerged.

Among these several different generalizations of the inner product on vectors are:

: $C\; \backslash ;\backslash rfloor\backslash ;\; D\; :=\; \backslash sum\_\{r,s\}\backslash langle\; \backslash langle\; C\backslash rangle\_r\; \backslash langle\; D\; \backslash rangle\_\{s\}\; \backslash rangle\_\{s-r\}$   (the left contraction)

: $C\; \backslash ;\backslash lfloor\backslash ;\; D\; :=\; \backslash sum\_\{r,s\}\backslash langle\; \backslash langle\; C\backslash rangle\_r\; \backslash langle\; D\; \backslash rangle\_\{s\}\; \backslash rangle\_\{r-s\}$   (the right contraction)

: $C\; *\; D\; :=\; \backslash sum\_\{r,s\}\backslash langle\; \backslash langle\; C\; \backslash rangle\_r\; \backslash langle\; D\; \backslash rangle\_s\; \backslash rangle\_\{0\}$   (the scalar product)

: $C\; \backslash bullet\; D\; :=\; \backslash sum\_\{r,s\}\backslash langle\; \backslash langle\; C\backslash rangle\_r\; \backslash langle\; D\; \backslash rangle\_\{s\}\; \backslash rangle\_$

This should not be confused with Hestenes's irregular generalization {{tmath|1= \textstyle C \bullet_\text{H} D := \sum_{r\ne0,s\ne0}\langle \langle C\rangle_r \langle D \rangle_{s} \rangle_{ \vert s-r \vert } }}, where the distinguishing notation is from {{harvp|Dorst|Fontijne|Mann|2007|p=590|loc=§B.1, which makes the point that scalar components must be handled separately with this product.}}}}

{{harvtxt|Dorst|2002}} makes an argument for the use of contractions in preference to Hestenes's inner product; they are algebraically more regular and have cleaner geometric interpretations.

A number of identities incorporating the contractions are valid without restriction of their inputs.

For example,

: $C\; \backslash ;\backslash rfloor\backslash ;\; D\; =\; (\; C\; \backslash wedge\; (\; D\; I^\{-1\}\; )\; )\; I$

: $C\; \backslash ;\backslash lfloor\backslash ;\; D\; =\; I\; (\; (\; I^\{-1\}\; C)\; \backslash wedge\; D\; )$

: $(\; A\; \backslash wedge\; B\; )\; *\; C\; =\; A\; *\; (\; B\; \backslash ;\backslash rfloor\backslash ;\; C\; )$

: $C\; *\; (\; B\; \backslash wedge\; A\; )\; =\; (\; C\; \backslash ;\backslash lfloor\backslash ;\; B\; )\; *\; A$

: $A\; \backslash ;\backslash rfloor\backslash ;\; (\; B\; \backslash ;\backslash rfloor\backslash ;\; C\; )\; =\; (\; A\; \backslash wedge\; B\; )\; \backslash ;\backslash rfloor\backslash ;\; C$

: $(\; A\; \backslash ;\backslash rfloor\backslash ;\; B\; )\; \backslash ;\backslash lfloor\backslash ;\; C\; =\; A\; \backslash ;\backslash rfloor\backslash ;\; (\; B\; \backslash ;\backslash lfloor\backslash ;\; C\; )\; .$

Benefits of using the left contraction as an extension of the inner product on vectors include that the identity $ab\; =\; a\; \backslash cdot\; b\; +\; a\; \backslash wedge\; b$ is extended to $aB\; =\; a\; \backslash ;\backslash rfloor\backslash ;\; B\; +\; a\; \backslash wedge\; B$ for any vector $a$ and multivector {{tmath|1= B }}, and that the projection operation $\backslash mathcal\{P\}\_b\; (a)\; =\; (a\; \backslash cdot\; b^\{-1\})b$ is extended to $\backslash mathcal\{P\}\_B\; (A)\; =\; (A\; \backslash ;\backslash rfloor\backslash ;\; B^\{-1\})\; \backslash ;\backslash rfloor\backslash ;\; B$ for any blade $B$ and any multivector $A$ (with a minor modification to accommodate null {{tmath|1= B }}, given below).

Let $\backslash \{\; e\_1\; ,\; \backslash ldots\; ,\; e\_n\; \backslash \}$ be a basis of {{tmath|1= V }}, i.e. a set of $n$ linearly independent vectors that span the {{tmath|1= n }}-dimensional vector space {{tmath|1= V }}. The basis that is dual to $\backslash \{\; e\_1\; ,\; \backslash ldots\; ,\; e\_n\; \backslash \}$ is the set of elements of the dual vector space $V^\{*\}$ that forms a biorthogonal system with this basis, thus being the elements denoted $\backslash \{\; e^1\; ,\; \backslash ldots\; ,\; e^n\; \backslash \}$ satisfying

: $e^i\; \backslash cdot\; e\_j\; =\; \backslash delta^i\{\}\_j,$

where $\backslash delta$ is the Kronecker delta.

Given a nondegenerate quadratic form on {{tmath|1= V }}, $V^\{*\}$ becomes naturally identified with {{tmath|1= V }}, and the dual basis may be regarded as elements of {{tmath|1= V }}, but are not in general the same set as the original basis.

Given further a GA of {{tmath|1= V }}, let

: $I\; =\; e\_1\; \backslash wedge\; \backslash cdots\; \backslash wedge\; e\_n$

be the pseudoscalar (which does not necessarily square to {{tmath|1= \pm 1 }}) formed from the basis {{tmath|1= \{ e_1 , \ldots , e_n \} }}. The dual basis vectors may be constructed as

: $e^i=(-1)^\{i-1\}(e\_1\; \backslash wedge\; \backslash cdots\; \backslash wedge\; \backslash check\{e\}\_i\; \backslash wedge\; \backslash cdots\; \backslash wedge\; e\_n)\; I^\{-1\},$

where the $\backslash check\{e\}\_i$ denotes that the {{tmath|1= i }}th basis vector is omitted from the product.

A dual basis is also known as a reciprocal basis or reciprocal frame.

A major usage of a dual basis is to separate vectors into components. Given a vector {{tmath|1= a }}, scalar components $a^i$ can be defined as

: $a^i=a\backslash cdot\; e^i\backslash \; ,$

in terms of which $a$ can be separated into vector components as

: $a=\backslash sum\_i\; a^i\; e\_i\backslash \; .$

We can also define scalar components $a\_i$ as

: $a\_i=a\backslash cdot\; e\_i\backslash \; ,$

in terms of which $a$ can be separated into vector components in terms of the dual basis as

: $a=\backslash sum\_i\; a\_i\; e^i\backslash \; .$

A dual basis as defined above for the vector subspace of a geometric algebra can be extended to cover the entire algebra.{{sfn|ps=|Hestenes|Sobczyk|1984|p=31}} For compactness, we'll use a single capital letter to represent an ordered set of vector indices. I.e., writing

: $J=(j\_1,\backslash dots\; ,j\_n)\backslash \; ,$

where {{tmath|1= j_1 < j_2 < \dots < j_n }},

we can write a basis blade as

: $e\_J=e\_\{j\_1\}\backslash wedge\; e\_\{j\_2\}\backslash wedge\backslash cdots\backslash wedge\; e\_\{j\_n\}\backslash \; .$

The corresponding reciprocal blade has the indices in opposite order:

: $e^J=e^\{j\_n\}\backslash wedge\backslash cdots\; \backslash wedge\; e^\{j\_2\}\backslash wedge\; e^\{j\_1\}\backslash \; .$

Similar to the case above with vectors, it can be shown that

: $e^J\; *\; e\_K=\backslash delta^J\_K\backslash \; ,$

where $*$ is the scalar product.

With $A$ a multivector, we can define scalar components as{{sfn|ps=|Doran|Lasenby|2003|p=102}}

: $A^\{ij\backslash cdots\; k\}=(e^k\backslash wedge\backslash cdots\backslash wedge\; e^j\backslash wedge\; e^i)*A\backslash \; ,$

in terms of which $A$ can be separated into component blades as

:

We can alternatively define scalar components

: $A\_\{ij\backslash cdots\; k\}=(e\_k\backslash wedge\backslash cdots\backslash wedge\; e\_j\backslash wedge\; e\_i)*A\backslash \; ,$

in terms of which $A$ can be separated into component blades as

:

Although a versor is easier to work with because it can be directly represented in the algebra as a multivector, versors are a subgroup of linear functions on multivectors, which can still be used when necessary. The geometric algebra of an {{tmath|1= n }}-dimensional vector space is spanned by a basis of $2^n$ elements. If a multivector is represented by a $2^n\; \backslash times\; 1$ real column matrix of coefficients of a basis of the algebra, then all linear transformations of the multivector can be expressed as the matrix multiplication by a $2^n\; \backslash times\; 2^n$ real matrix. However, such a general linear transformation allows arbitrary exchanges among grades, such as a "rotation" of a scalar into a vector, which has no evident geometric interpretation.

A general linear transformation from vectors to vectors is of interest. With the natural restriction to preserving the induced exterior algebra, the outermorphism of the linear transformation is the unique{{efn|The condition that $\backslash underline\{\backslash mathsf\{f\}\}(1)\; =\; 1$ is usually added to ensure that the zero map is unique.}} extension of the versor. If $f$ is a linear function that maps vectors to vectors, then its outermorphism is the function that obeys the rule

: $\backslash underline\{\backslash mathsf\{f\}\}(a\_1\; \backslash wedge\; a\_2\; \backslash wedge\; \backslash cdots\; \backslash wedge\; a\_r)\; =\; f(a\_1)\; \backslash wedge\; f(a\_2)\; \backslash wedge\; \backslash cdots\; \backslash wedge\; f(a\_r)$

for a blade, extended to the whole algebra through linearity.

Although a lot of attention has been placed on CGA, it is to be noted that GA is not just one algebra, it is one of a family of algebras with the same essential structure.{{sfn|ps=|Dorst|Lasenby|2011|p=vi}}

{{main | Comparison of vector algebra and geometric algebra}}

The even subalgebra of $\backslash mathcal\{G\}(2,0)$ is isomorphic to the complex numbers, as may be seen by writing a vector $P$ in terms of its components in an orthonormal basis and left multiplying by the basis vector {{tmath|1= e_1 }}, yielding

: $Z\; =\; e\_1\; P\; =\; e\_1\; (\; x\; e\_1\; +\; y\; e\_2)\; =\; x\; (1)\; +\; y\; (\; e\_1\; e\_2)\; ,$

where we identify $i\; \backslash mapsto\; e\_1e\_2$ since

: $(e\_1\; e\_2)^2\; =\; e\_1\; e\_2\; e\_1\; e\_2\; =\; -e\_1\; e\_1\; e\_2\; e\_2\; =\; -1\; .$

Similarly, the even subalgebra of $\backslash mathcal\{G\}(3,0)$ with basis $\backslash \{1,\; e\_2\; e\_3,\; e\_3\; e\_1,\; e\_1\; e\_2\; \backslash \}$ is isomorphic to the quaternions as may be seen by identifying {{tmath|1= i \mapsto -e_2 e_3 }}, $j\; \backslash mapsto\; -e\_3\; e\_1$ and {{tmath|1= k \mapsto -e_1 e_2 }}.

Every associative algebra has a matrix representation; replacing the three Cartesian basis vectors by the Pauli matrices gives a representation of {{tmath|1= \mathcal{G}(3,0) }}:

: $\backslash begin\{align\}$

e_1 = \sigma_1 = \sigma_x &=

\begin{pmatrix}

0 & 1 \\

1 & 0

\end{pmatrix} \\

e_2 = \sigma_2 = \sigma_y &=

\begin{pmatrix}

0 & -i \\

i & 0

\end{pmatrix} \\

e_3 =\sigma_3 = \sigma_z &=

\begin{pmatrix}

1 & 0 \\

0 & -1

\end{pmatrix} \,.

\end{align}

Dotting the "Pauli vector" (a dyad):

: $\backslash sigma\; =\; \backslash sigma\_1\; e\_1\; +\; \backslash sigma\_2\; e\_2\; +\; \backslash sigma\_3\; e\_3$ with arbitrary vectors $a$ and $b$ and multiplying through gives:

: $(\backslash sigma\; \backslash cdot\; a)(\backslash sigma\; \backslash cdot\; b)\; =\; a\; \backslash cdot\; b\; +\; a\; \backslash wedge\; b$ (Equivalently, by inspection, {{tmath|1= a \cdot b + i \sigma \cdot ( a \times b ) }})

In physics, the main applications are the geometric algebra of Minkowski 3+1 spacetime, {{tmath|1= \mathcal{G}(1,3) }}, called spacetime algebra (STA),{{sfn|ps=|Hestenes|1966}} or less commonly, {{tmath|1= \mathcal{G}(3,0) }}, interpreted the algebra of physical space (APS).

While in STA, points of spacetime are represented simply by vectors, in APS, points of {{tmath|1= (3+1) }}-dimensional spacetime are instead represented by paravectors, a three-dimensional vector (space) plus a one-dimensional scalar (time).

In spacetime algebra the electromagnetic field tensor has a bivector representation {{tmath|1= {F} = ({E} + i c {B})\gamma_0 }}.{{citation |url=http://www.av8n.com/physics/maxwell-ga.htm |title=Electromagnetism using Geometric Algebra versus Components |access-date=2013-03-19 }} Here, the $i\; =\; \backslash gamma\_0\; \backslash gamma\_1\; \backslash gamma\_2\; \backslash gamma\_3$ is the unit pseudoscalar (or four-dimensional volume element), $\backslash gamma\_0$ is the unit vector in time direction, and $E$ and $B$ are the classic electric and magnetic field vectors (with a zero time component). Using the four-current {{tmath|1= {J} }}, Maxwell's equations then become

:

In geometric calculus, juxtaposition of vectors such as in $DF$ indicate the geometric product and can be decomposed into parts as {{tmath|1= DF = D ~\rfloor~ F + D \wedge F }}. Here $D$ is the covector derivative in any spacetime and reduces to $\backslash nabla$ in flat spacetime. Where $\backslash bigtriangledown$ plays a role in Minkowski {{tmath|1= 4 }}-spacetime which is synonymous to the role of $\backslash nabla$ in Euclidean {{tmath|1= 3 }}-space and is related to the d'Alembertian by {{tmath|1= \Box=\bigtriangledown^2 }}. Indeed, given an observer represented by a future pointing timelike vector $\backslash gamma\_0$ we have

: $\backslash gamma\_0\backslash cdot\backslash bigtriangledown=\backslash frac\{1\}\{c\}\backslash frac\{\backslash partial\}\{\backslash partial\; t\}$

: $\backslash gamma\_0\backslash wedge\backslash bigtriangledown=\backslash nabla$

Boosts in this Lorentzian metric space have the same expression $e^\{\{\backslash beta\}\}$ as rotation in Euclidean space, where $\{\backslash beta\}$ is the bivector generated by the time and the space directions involved, whereas in the Euclidean case it is the bivector generated by the two space directions, strengthening the "analogy" to almost identity.

The Dirac matrices are a representation of {{tmath|1= \mathcal{G}(1,3) }}, showing the equivalence with matrix representations used by physicists.

Homogeneous models generally refer to a projective representation in which the elements of the one-dimensional subspaces of a vector space represent points of a geometry.

In a geometric algebra of a space of $n$ dimensions, the rotors represent a set of transformations with $n(n-1)/2$ degrees of freedom, corresponding to rotations – for example, $3$ when $n=3$ and $6$ when {{tmath|1= n=4 }}. Geometric algebra is often used to model a projective space, i.e. as a homogeneous model: a point, line, plane, etc. is represented by an equivalence class of elements of the algebra that differ by an invertible scalar factor.

The rotors in a space of dimension $n+1$ have n(n-1)/2+n degrees of freedom, the same as the number of degrees of freedom in the rotations and translations combined for an {{tmath|1= n }}-dimensional space.

This is the case in Projective Geometric Algebra (PGA), which is used{{sfn|ps=|Selig|2005}}{{sfn|ps=|Hadfield|Lasenby|2020}}{{citation |title=Projective Geometric Algebra |url=https://projectivegeometricalgebra.org/ |access-date=2023-10-03 |website=projectivegeometricalgebra.org}} to represent Euclidean isometries in Euclidean geometry (thereby covering the large majority of engineering applications of geometry). In this model, a degenerate dimension is added to the three Euclidean dimensions to form the algebra {{tmath|1= \mathcal{G}(3,0,1) }}. With a suitable identification of subspaces to represent points, lines and planes, the versors of this algebra represent all proper Euclidean isometries, which are always screw motions in 3-dimensional space, along with all improper Euclidean isometries, which includes reflections, rotoreflections, transflections, and point reflections. PGA allows projection, meet, and angle formulas to be derived from $\backslash mathcal\{G\}(3,0,1)$ - with a very minor extension to the algebra it is also possible to derive distances and joins.

PGA is a widely used system that combines geometric algebra with homogeneous representations in geometry, but there exist several other such systems. The conformal model discussed below is homogeneous, as is "Conic Geometric Algebra",{{sfn|ps=|Hrdina|Návrat|Vašík|2018}} and see Plane-based geometric algebra for discussion of homogeneous models of elliptic and hyperbolic geometry compared with the Euclidean geometry derived from PGA.

{{main|Conformal geometric algebra}}

File:Horosphere-3d.svg

Working within GA, Euclidean space $\backslash mathbb\; E^3$ (along with a conformal point at infinity) is embedded projectively in the CGA $\backslash mathcal\{G\}(4,1)$ via the identification of Euclidean points with 1D subspaces in the 4D null cone of the 5D CGA vector subspace. This allows all conformal transformations to be performed as rotations and reflections and is covariant, extending incidence relations of projective geometry to rounds objects such as circles and spheres.

Specifically, we add orthogonal basis vectors $e\_+$ and $e\_-$ such that $e\_+^2\; =\; +1$ and $e\_-^2\; =\; -1$ to the basis of the vector space that generates $\backslash mathcal\{G\}(3,0)$ and identify null vectors

: $n\_\backslash text\{o\}\; =\; \backslash tfrac\{1\}\{2\}(e\_-\; -\; e\_+)$ as the point at the origin and

: $n\_\backslash infty\; =\; e\_-\; +\; e\_+$ as a conformal point at infinity (see Compactification), giving

: $n\_\backslash infty\; \backslash cdot\; n\_\backslash text\{o\}\; =\; -1\; .$

(Some authors set $e\_4\; =\; n\_\backslash text\{o\}$ and {{tmath|1= e_5 = n_\infty }}.{{sfn|ps=|Lengyel|2024}}) This procedure has some similarities to the procedure for working with homogeneous coordinates in projective geometry, and in this case allows the modeling of Euclidean transformations of $\backslash mathbb\{R\}^3$ as orthogonal transformations of a subset of {{tmath|1= \mathbf{R}^{4,1} }}.

A fast changing and fluid area of GA, CGA is also being investigated for applications to relativistic physics.

Note in this list that {{tmath|1= p }} and {{tmath|1= q }} can be swapped and the same name applies; for example, with relatively little change occurring, see sign convention. For example, $\backslash mathcal\{G\}(3,\; 1,\; 0)$ and $\backslash mathcal\{G\}(1,\; 3,\; 0)$ are both referred to as Spacetime Algebra.{{sfn|ps=|Wu|2022}}

File:GA plane subspace and projection.svg

For any vector $a$ and any invertible vector {{tmath|1= m }},

: $a\; =\; amm^\{-1\}\; =\; (a\backslash cdot\; m\; +\; a\; \backslash wedge\; m)m^\{-1\}\; =\; a\_\{\backslash |\; m\}\; +\; a\_\{\backslash perp\; m\}\; ,$

where the projection of $a$ onto $m$ (or the parallel part) is

: $a\_\{\backslash |\; m\}\; =\; (a\; \backslash cdot\; m)m^\{-1\}$

and the rejection of $a$ from $m$ (or the orthogonal part) is

: $a\_\{\backslash perp\; m\}\; =\; a\; -\; a\_\{\backslash |\; m\}\; =\; (a\backslash wedge\; m)m^\{-1\}\; .$

Using the concept of a {{tmath|1= k }}-blade {{tmath|1= B }} as representing a subspace of {{tmath|1= V }} and every multivector ultimately being expressed in terms of vectors, this generalizes to projection of a general multivector onto any invertible {{tmath|1= k }}-blade {{tmath|1= B }} as{{efn|This definition follows {{harvp|Dorst|Fontijne|Mann|2007}} and {{harvp|Perwass|2009}} – the left contraction used by Dorst replaces the ("fat dot") inner product that Perwass uses, consistent with Perwass's constraint that grade of {{tmath|1= A }} may not exceed that of {{tmath|1= B }}.}}

: $\backslash mathcal\{P\}\_B\; (A)\; =\; (A\; \backslash ;\backslash rfloor\backslash ;\; B)\; \backslash ;\backslash rfloor\backslash ;\; B^\{-1\}\; ,$

with the rejection being defined as

: $\backslash mathcal\{P\}\_B^\backslash perp\; (A)\; =\; A\; -\; \backslash mathcal\{P\}\_B\; (A)\; .$

The projection and rejection generalize to null blades $B$ by replacing the inverse $B^\{-1\}$ with the pseudoinverse $B^\{+\}$ with respect to the contractive product.{{efn|Dorst appears to merely assume $B^\{+\}$ such that {{tmath|1= B \;\rfloor\; B^{+} = 1 }}, whereas {{harvp|Perwass|2009}} defines {{tmath|1= B^{+} = B^{\dagger}/(B \;\rfloor\; B^{\dagger}) }}, where $B^\{\backslash dagger\}$ is the conjugate of {{tmath|1= B }}, equivalent to the reverse of $B$ up to a sign.}} The outcome of the projection coincides in both cases for non-null blades.{{sfn|ps=|Dorst|Fontijne|Mann|2007|loc=§3.6 p. 85}}{{sfn|ps=|Perwass|2009|loc=§3.2.10.2 p. 83}} For null blades {{tmath|1= B }}, the definition of the projection given here with the first contraction rather than the second being onto the pseudoinverse should be used,{{efn|That is to say, the projection must be defined as {{tmath|1= \mathcal{P}_{B}(A) = (A \;\rfloor\; B^{+}) \;\rfloor\; B }} and not as {{tmath|1= (A \;\rfloor\; B) \;\rfloor\; B^{+} }}, though the two are equivalent for non-null blades {{tmath|1= B }}.}} as only then is the result necessarily in the subspace represented by {{tmath|1= B }}.{{sfn|ps=|Dorst|Fontijne|Mann|2007|loc=§3.6 p. 85}}

The projection generalizes through linearity to general multivectors {{tmath|1= A }}.{{efn|This generalization to all {{tmath|1= A }} is apparently not considered by Perwass or Dorst.}} The projection is not linear in {{tmath|1= B }} and does not generalize to objects {{tmath|1= B }} that are not blades.

Simple reflections in a hyperplane are readily expressed in the algebra through conjugation with a single vector. These serve to generate the group of general rotoreflections and rotations.

File:GA reflection along vector.svg

The reflection $c\text{'}$ of a vector $c$ along a vector {{tmath|1= m }}, or equivalently in the hyperplane orthogonal to {{tmath|1= m }}, is the same as negating the component of a vector parallel to {{tmath|1= m }}. The result of the reflection will be

: $c\text{'}\; =\; \{-c\_\{\backslash |\; m\}\; +\; c\_\{\backslash perp\; m\}\}\; =\; \{-(c\; \backslash cdot\; m)m^\{-1\}\; +\; (c\; \backslash wedge\; m)m^\{-1\}\}$

= {(-m \cdot c - m \wedge c)m^{-1}}

= -mcm^{-1}

This is not the most general operation that may be regarded as a reflection when the dimension {{tmath|1= n \ge 4 }}. A general reflection may be expressed as the composite of any odd number of single-axis reflections. Thus, a general reflection $a\text{'}$ of a vector $a$ may be written

: $a\; \backslash mapsto\; a\text{'}\; =\; -MaM^\{-1\}\; ,$

where

: $M\; =\; pq\; \backslash cdots\; r$ and $M^\{-1\}\; =\; (pq\; \backslash cdots\; r)^\{-1\}\; =\; r^\{-1\}\; \backslash cdots\; q^\{-1\}p^\{-1\}\; .$

If we define the reflection along a non-null vector $m$ of the product of vectors as the reflection of every vector in the product along the same vector, we get for any product of an odd number of vectors that, by way of example,

: $(abc)\text{'}\; =\; a\text{'}b\text{'}c\text{'}\; =\; (-mam^\{-1\})(-mbm^\{-1\})(-mcm^\{-1\})\; =\; -ma(m^\{-1\}m)b(m^\{-1\}m)cm^\{-1\}\; =\; -mabcm^\{-1\}\; \backslash ,$

and for the product of an even number of vectors that

: $(abcd)\text{'}\; =\; a\text{'}b\text{'}c\text{'}d\text{'}\; =\; (-mam^\{-1\})(-mbm^\{-1\})(-mcm^\{-1\})(-mdm^\{-1\})\; =\; mabcdm^\{-1\}\; .$

Using the concept of every multivector ultimately being expressed in terms of vectors, the reflection of a general multivector $A$ using any reflection versor $M$ may be written

: $A\; \backslash mapsto\; M\backslash alpha(A)M^\{-1\}\; ,$

where $\backslash alpha$ is the automorphism of reflection through the origin of the vector space ({{tmath|1= v \mapsto -v }}) extended through linearity to the whole algebra.

File:GA planar rotations.svg

If we have a product of vectors $R\; =\; a\_1a\_2\; \backslash cdots\; a\_r$ then we denote the reverse as

: $\backslash widetilde\; R\; =\; a\_r\backslash cdots\; a\_2\; a\_1.$

As an example, assume that $R\; =\; ab$ we get

: $R\backslash widetilde\; R\; =\; abba\; =\; ab^2a\; =\; a^2b^2\; =\; ba^2b\; =\; baab\; =\; \backslash widetilde\; RR.$

Scaling $R$ so that $R\backslash widetilde\; R\; =\; 1$ then

: $(Rv\backslash widetilde\; R)^2\; =\; Rv^\{2\}\backslash widetilde\; R\; =\; v^2R\backslash widetilde\; R\; =\; v^2$

so $Rv\backslash widetilde\; R$ leaves the length of $v$ unchanged. We can also show that

: $(Rv\_1\backslash widetilde\; R)\; \backslash cdot\; (Rv\_2\backslash widetilde\; R)\; =\; v\_1\; \backslash cdot\; v\_2$

so the transformation $Rv\backslash widetilde\; R$ preserves both length and angle. It therefore can be identified as a rotation or rotoreflection; $R$ is called a rotor if it is a proper rotation (as it is if it can be expressed as a product of an even number of vectors) and is an instance of what is known in GA as a versor.

There is a general method for rotating a vector involving the formation of a multivector of the form $R\; =\; e^\{-B\; \backslash theta\; /\; 2\}$ that produces a rotation $\backslash theta$ in the plane and with the orientation defined by a {{tmath|1= 2 }}-blade {{tmath|1= B }}.

Rotors are a generalization of quaternions to {{tmath|1= n }}-dimensional spaces.

For vectors {{tmath|1= a }} and {{tmath|1= b }} spanning a parallelogram we have

: $a\; \backslash wedge\; b\; =\; ((a\; \backslash wedge\; b)\; b^\{-1\})\; b\; =\; a\_\{\backslash perp\; b\}\; b$

with the result that {{tmath|1= a \wedge b }} is linear in the product of the "altitude" and the "base" of the parallelogram, that is, its area.

Similar interpretations are true for any number of vectors spanning an {{tmath|1= n }}-dimensional parallelotope; the exterior product of vectors {{tmath|1= a_1, a_2, \ldots , a_n }}, that is {{tmath|1= \textstyle \bigwedge_{i=1}^n a_i }}, has a magnitude equal to the volume of the {{tmath|1= n }}-parallelotope. An {{tmath|1= n }}-vector does not necessarily have a shape of a parallelotope – this is a convenient visualization. It could be any shape, although the volume equals that of the parallelotope.

File:LinePlaneIntersect.png

We may define the line parametrically by {{tmath|1= p = t + \alpha \ v }}, where {{tmath|1= p }} and {{tmath|1= t }} are position vectors for points P and T and {{tmath|1= v }} is the direction vector for the line.

Then

: $B\; \backslash wedge\; (p-q)\; =\; 0$ and $B\; \backslash wedge\; (t\; +\; \backslash alpha\; v\; -\; q)\; =\; 0$

so

: $\backslash alpha\; =\; \backslash frac\{B\; \backslash wedge(q-t)\}\{B\; \backslash wedge\; v\}$

and

: $p\; =\; t\; +\; \backslash left(\backslash frac\{B\; \backslash wedge\; (q-t)\}\{B\; \backslash wedge\; v\}\backslash right)\; v.$

A rotational quantity such as torque or angular momentum is described in geometric algebra as a bivector. Suppose a circular path in an arbitrary plane containing orthonormal vectors {{tmath|1= \widehat{u} }} and {{tmath|1= \widehat{\ \!v} }} is parameterized by angle.

: $\backslash mathbf\{r\}\; =\; r(\backslash widehat\{u\}\; \backslash cos\; \backslash theta\; +\; \backslash widehat\{\backslash \; \backslash !v\}\; \backslash sin\; \backslash theta)\; =\; r\; \backslash widehat\{u\}(\backslash cos\; \backslash theta\; +\; \backslash widehat\{u\}\; \backslash widehat\{\backslash \; \backslash !v\}\; \backslash sin\; \backslash theta)$

By designating the unit bivector of this plane as the imaginary number

: $\{i\}\; =\; \backslash widehat\{u\}\; \backslash widehat\{\backslash \; \backslash !v\}\; =\; \backslash widehat\{u\}\; \backslash wedge\; \backslash widehat\{\backslash \; \backslash !v\}$

: $i^2\; =\; -1$

this path vector can be conveniently written in complex exponential form

: $\backslash mathbf\{r\}\; =\; r\; \backslash widehat\{u\}\; e^\{i\backslash theta\}$

and the derivative with respect to angle is

: $\backslash frac\{d\; \backslash mathbf\{r\}\}\{d\backslash theta\}\; =\; r\; \backslash widehat\{u\}\; i\; e^\{i\backslash theta\}\; =\; \backslash mathbf\{r\}\; i\; .$

File:Exterior calc cross product.svg

For example, torque is generally defined as the magnitude of the perpendicular force component times distance, or work per unit angle. Thus the torque, the rate of change of work {{tmath|1= W }} with respect to angle, due to a force {{tmath|1= F }}, is

: $\backslash tau\; =\; \backslash frac\{dW\}\{d\backslash theta\}\; =\; F\; \backslash cdot\; \backslash frac\{dr\}\{d\backslash theta\}\; =\; F\; \backslash cdot\; (\backslash mathbf\{r\}\; i)\; .$

Rotational quantities are represented in vector calculus in three dimensions using the cross product. Together with a choice of an oriented volume form {{tmath|1= I }}, these can be related to the exterior product with its more natural geometric interpretation of such quantities as a bivectors by using the dual relationship

: $a\; \backslash times\; b\; =\; -I\; (a\; \backslash wedge\; b)\; .$

Unlike the cross product description of torque, {{tmath|1= \tau = \mathbf{r} \times F }}, the geometric algebra description does not introduce a vector in the normal direction; a vector that does not exist in two and that is not unique in greater than three dimensions. The unit bivector describes the plane and the orientation of the rotation, and the sense of the rotation is relative to the angle between the vectors {{tmath|1= \widehat{u} }} and {{tmath|1= \widehat{\ \!v} }}.

{{main|Geometric calculus}}

Geometric calculus extends the formalism to include differentiation and integration including differential geometry and differential forms.{{sfn|ps=|Hestenes|Sobczyk|1984}}

Essentially, the vector derivative is defined so that the GA version of Green's theorem is true,

: $\backslash int\_A\; dA\; \backslash ,\backslash nabla\; f\; =\; \backslash oint\_\{\backslash partial\; A\}\; dx\; \backslash ,\; f$

and then one can write

: $\backslash nabla\; f\; =\; \backslash nabla\; \backslash cdot\; f\; +\; \backslash nabla\; \backslash wedge\; f$

as a geometric product, effectively generalizing Stokes' theorem (including the differential form version of it).

In 1D when {{tmath|1= A }} is a curve with endpoints {{tmath|1= a }} and {{tmath|1= b }}, then

: $\backslash int\_A\; dA\; \backslash ,\backslash nabla\; f\; =\; \backslash oint\_\{\backslash partial\; A\}\; dx\; \backslash ,\; f$

reduces to

: $\backslash int\_a^b\; dx\; \backslash ,\; \backslash nabla\; f\; =\; \backslash int\_a^b\; dx\; \backslash cdot\; \backslash nabla\; f\; =\; \backslash int\_a^b\; df\; =\; f(b)\; -f(a)$

or the fundamental theorem of integral calculus.

Also developed are the concept of vector manifold and geometric integration theory (which generalizes differential forms).

Although the connection of geometry with algebra dates as far back at least to Euclid's Elements in the third century B.C. (see Greek geometric algebra), GA in the sense used in this article was not developed until 1844, when it was used in a systematic way to describe the geometrical properties and transformations of a space. In that year, Hermann Grassmann introduced the idea of a geometrical algebra in full generality as a certain calculus (analogous to the propositional calculus) that encoded all of the geometrical information of a space.{{sfn|ps=|Grassmann|1844}} Grassmann's algebraic system could be applied to a number of different kinds of spaces, the chief among them being Euclidean space, affine space, and projective space. Following Grassmann, in 1878 William Kingdon Clifford examined Grassmann's algebraic system alongside the quaternions of William Rowan Hamilton in {{Harvard citation|Clifford|1878}}. From his point of view, the quaternions described certain transformations (which he called rotors), whereas Grassmann's algebra described certain properties (or Strecken such as length, area, and volume). His contribution was to define a new product – the geometric product – on an existing Grassmann algebra, which realized the quaternions as living within that algebra. Subsequently, Rudolf Lipschitz in 1886 generalized Clifford's interpretation of the quaternions and applied them to the geometry of rotations in {{tmath|1= n }} dimensions. Later these developments would lead other 20th-century mathematicians to formalize and explore the properties of the Clifford algebra.

Nevertheless, another revolutionary development of the 19th-century would completely overshadow the geometric algebras: that of vector analysis, developed independently by Josiah Willard Gibbs and Oliver Heaviside. Vector analysis was motivated by James Clerk Maxwell's studies of electromagnetism, and specifically the need to express and manipulate conveniently certain differential equations. Vector analysis had a certain intuitive appeal compared to the rigors of the new algebras. Physicists and mathematicians alike readily adopted it as their geometrical toolkit of choice, particularly following the influential 1901 textbook Vector Analysis by Edwin Bidwell Wilson, following lectures of Gibbs.

In more detail, there have been three approaches to geometric algebra: quaternionic analysis, initiated by Hamilton in 1843 and geometrized as rotors by Clifford in 1878; geometric algebra, initiated by Grassmann in 1844; and vector analysis, developed out of quaternionic analysis in the late 19th century by Gibbs and Heaviside. The legacy of quaternionic analysis in vector analysis can be seen in the use of {{tmath|1= i }}, {{tmath|1= j }}, {{tmath|1= k }} to indicate the basis vectors of {{tmath|1= \mathbf{R}^3 }}: it is being thought of as the purely imaginary quaternions. From the perspective of geometric algebra, the even subalgebra of the Space Time Algebra is isomorphic to the GA of 3D Euclidean space and quaternions are isomorphic to the even subalgebra of the GA of 3D Euclidean space, which unifies the three approaches.

Progress on the study of Clifford algebras quietly advanced through the twentieth century, although largely due to the work of abstract algebraists such as Élie Cartan, Hermann Weyl and Claude Chevalley. The geometrical approach to geometric algebras has seen a number of 20th-century revivals. In mathematics, Emil Artin's Geometric Algebra{{sfn|ps=|Artin|1988}} discusses the algebra associated with each of a number of geometries, including affine geometry, projective geometry, symplectic geometry, and orthogonal geometry. In physics, geometric algebras have been revived as a "new" way to do classical mechanics and electromagnetism, together with more advanced topics such as quantum mechanics and gauge theory.{{sfn|ps=|Doran|1994}} David Hestenes reinterpreted the Pauli and Dirac matrices as vectors in ordinary space and spacetime, respectively, and has been a primary contemporary advocate for the use of geometric algebra.

In computer graphics and robotics, geometric algebras have been revived in order to efficiently represent rotations and other transformations. For applications of GA in robotics (screw theory, kinematics and dynamics using versors), computer vision, control and neural computing (geometric learning) see Bayro (2010).

• Comparison of vector algebra and geometric algebra
• Clifford algebra
• Grassmann–Cayley algebra
• Spacetime algebra
• Spinor
• Quaternion
• Algebra of physical space
• Universal geometric algebra

{{notelist}}

{{reflist}}

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• {{citation |doi=10.1007/978-3-030-61864-3_39 |chapter=Constrained Dynamics in Conformal and Projective Geometric Algebra |title=Advances in Computer Graphics |series=Lecture Notes in Computer Science |date=2020 |last1=Hadfield |first1=Hugo |last2=Lasenby |first2=Joan|author2-link=Joan Lasenby |volume=12221 |pages=459–471 |isbn=978-3-030-61863-6 |s2cid=224820480 |chapter-url=https://www.repository.cam.ac.uk/handle/1810/324261 }}
• {{citation |doi=10.1038/s41598-022-06895-0 |title=A signature invariant geometric algebra framework for spacetime physics and its applications in relativistic dynamics of a massive particle and gyroscopic precession |date=2022 |last1=Wu |first1=Bofeng |journal=Scientific Reports |volume=12 |issue=1 |page=3981 |pmid=35256628 |pmc=8901677 |arxiv=2111.07353 |bibcode=2022NatSR..12.3981W }}
• {{citation |year=2023 |last=Wilmot |first=G.P. |title=The Algebra Of Geometry |website=GitHub |url=https://github.com/GPWilmot/geoalg}}
• {{citation |year=2024 |last=Lengyel |first=Eric |title=Projective Geometric Algebra Illuminated |location=Lincoln, California |publisher=Terathon Software LLC |isbn=979-8-9853582-5-4 }}

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{{Wikibooks|Physics in the Language of Geometric Algebra. An Approach with the Algebra of Physical Space}}

{{Wikiversity|Investigating 3D geometric algebra}}

{{refbegin}}

• [http://faculty.luther.edu/~macdonal/GA&GC.pdf A Survey of Geometric Algebra and Geometric Calculus] [http://faculty.luther.edu/~macdonal/ Alan Macdonald], Luther College, Iowa
• [http://geometry.mrao.cam.ac.uk/wp-content/uploads/2015/02/ImagNumbersArentReal.pdf Imaginary Numbers are not Real – the Geometric Algebra of Spacetime]. Introduction (Cambridge GA group)
• [http://geometry.mrao.cam.ac.uk/category/lecture/ Geometric Algebra 2015, Masters Course in Scientific Computing], from Dr. Chris Doran (Cambridge)
• [http://www.iancgbell.clara.net/maths/ Maths for (Games) Programmers: 5 – Multivector methods] – comprehensive introduction and reference for programmers, from Ian Bell
• [http://www.visgraf.impa.br/Courses/ga/ IMPA Summer School 2010] Fernandes Oliveira Intro and Slides
• [https://web.archive.org/web/20110722080341/http://sinai.apphy.u-fukui.ac.jp/gcj/pubs.html University of Fukui] E.S.M. Hitzer and Japan GA publications
• [https://groups.google.com/group/geometric_algebra Google Group for GA]
• [http://www.jaapsuter.com/geometric-algebra/ Geometric Algebra Primer] Introduction to GA, Jaap Suter
• [http://bleyer.org/dw/doku.php?id=geometric_algebra Geometric Algebra Resources] curated wiki, Pablo Bleyer
• [https://mat-web.upc.edu/people/sebastia.xambo/A18/EP.pdf Applied Geometric Algebras in Computer Science and Engineering 2018] Early Proceedings
• [https://bivector.net/ bivector.net] Geometric Algebra for CGI, Vision and Engineering community website
• [https://www.youtube.com/playlist?list=PLsSPBzvBkYjyWv5wLVV7QfeS_d8pwCPv_ AGACSE 2021 Videos]

English translations of early books and papers

• [http://neo-classical-physics.info/uploads/3/0/6/5/3065888/combebiac_-_tri-quaternions.pdf G. Combebiac, "calculus of tri-quaternions"] (Doctoral dissertation)
• [http://neo-classical-physics.info/uploads/3/0/6/5/3065888/markic_-_tri_and_quadri-quaternions.pdf M. Markic, "Transformants: A new mathematical vehicle. A synthesis of Combebiac's tri-quaternions and Grassmann's geometric system. The calculus of quadri-quaternions"]
• [http://neo-classical-physics.info/uploads/3/0/6/5/3065888/burali-forti_-_grassman_and_proj._geom..pdf C. Burali-Forti, "The Grassmann method in projective geometry"] A compilation of three notes on the application of exterior algebra to projective geometry
• [http://neo-classical-physics.info/uploads/3/0/6/5/3065888/burali-forti_-_diff._geom._following_grassmann.pdf C. Burali-Forti, "Introduction to Differential Geometry, following the method of H. Grassmann"] Early book on the application of Grassmann algebra
• [http://neo-classical-physics.info/uploads/3/0/6/5/3065888/grassmann_-_mechanics_and_extensions.pdf H. Grassmann, "Mechanics, according to the principles of the theory of extension"] – one of his papers on the applications of exterior algebra

Research groups

• [https://web.archive.org/web/20110722080105/http://sinai.apphy.u-fukui.ac.jp/gcj/gc_int.html Geometric Calculus International]. Links to Research groups, Software, and Conferences, worldwide
• [https://web.archive.org/web/20011129095049/http://www.mrao.cam.ac.uk/~clifford/ Cambridge Geometric Algebra group]. Full-text online publications, and other material
• [https://web.archive.org/web/20050603081056/http://www.science.uva.nl/ga/ University of Amsterdam group]
• [https://davidhestenes.net/geocalc/ Geometric Calculus research & development] (archive of Hestenes's website at Arizona State University)
• [http://gaupdate.wordpress.com/ GA-Net blog] and [https://web.archive.org/web/20110722080156/http://sinai.apphy.u-fukui.ac.jp/GA-Net/archive/index.html newsletter archive]. Geometric Algebra/Clifford Algebra development news
• [http://www.gdl.cinvestav.mx/edb/ Geometric Algebra for Perception Action Systems. Geometric Cybernetics Group] (CINVESTAV, Campus Guadalajara, Mexico)

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{{Linear algebra}}

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