gynoid fat distribution

Gynoid fat is mainly composed of long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids. It is proposed that babies which are breast-fed are more likely to have increased cognitive capabilities due to these fatty acids being present in the breast milk, as they have been suggested to aid early brain development in fetuses and newborns.{{Cite journal|last1=Agostoni|first1=C|last2=Marangoni|first2=F|last3=Bernardo|first3=L|last4=Lammardo|first4=Am|last5=Galli|first5=C|last6=Riva|first6=E|date=1999-09-01|title=Long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids in human milk|journal=Acta Paediatrica|language=en|volume=88|issue=430|pages=68–71|doi=10.1111/j.1651-2227.1999.tb01303.x|pmid=10569226|s2cid=1419086|issn=1651-2227}} The most notable fatty acids found in human breast milk are docosahexaenoic acid and arachidonic acid, which have been shown to play crucial roles in the healthy formation and functions of neurons.{{Cite web|url=http://www.todaysdietitian.com/newarchives/092208p66.shtml|title=The Role of DHA and ARA in Infant Nutrition and Neurodevelopmental Outcomes|website=www.todaysdietitian.com|access-date=2016-03-17}}

Gynoid fat contributes toward the female body shape that girls begin to develop at puberty; it is stored in the hips, thighs and bottom.{{cite journal | last1 = Kirchengast | first1 = S. | last2 = Gruber | first2 = D. | last3 = Sator | first3 = M. | last4 = Knogler | first4 = W. | last5 = Huber | first5 = J. | year = 1997 | title = The fat distribution index-a new possibility to quantify sex specific fat patterning in females | journal = Homo | volume = 48 | issue = 3| pages = 285–295 }} This process is modulated by estrogen, the female sex hormone, causing the female form to store higher levels of fat than the male form, which is affected primarily by testosterone.{{Cite web|url=http://tanita.com/MessageForWomen.shtml |title=Tanita - Women & Body Fat |date=2009-02-16 |access-date=2016-03-17 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090216195502/http://tanita.com/MessageForWomen.shtml |archive-date=February 16, 2009 }}

{{See also|Android fat distribution}}

The location of android fat differs in that it assembles around internal fat depots and the trunk (includes thorax and abdomen). Android fat has more of a survival role and is utilised by the body as an energy source when energy supplies are low, in contrast to the reproductive functions of gynoid fat.Lancaster, J. B. (1986). Human adolescence and reproduction: An evolutionary perspective. School-Age Pregnancy and Parenthood. Hawthorne, NY: Aldine de Gruyter, 17-39.

Gynoid fat is regarded as a physically attractive feature, serving as an indication towards a woman's reproductive potential.{{Cite journal |last=Singh |first=Devendra |date=1994-01-01 |title=Is thin really beautiful and good? Relationship between waist-to-hip ratio (WHR) and female attractiveness |journal=Personality and Individual Differences |volume=16 |issue=1 |pages=123–132 |doi=10.1016/0191-8869(94)90116-3}}

It is primarily a store of energy to be expended in the nurturing of offspring, both to provide adequate energy resources during pregnancy and for the infant during the stage in which they are breastfeeding.Plowman, Sharon & Smith, Denise (2007). Exercise Physiology for Health, Fitness, and Performance, p. 218. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. {{ISBN|0781784069}} When there are insufficient energy resources in the environment or health issues which require energy to combat, a woman's storage of gynoid fat is likely to be reduced. Therefore, a female with high levels of gynoid fat would be signalling to males that they are in an optimal state for reproduction and nurturing of offspring. This can be seen in the fact that a female's waist–hip ratio is at its optimal minimum during times of peak fertility—late adolescence and early adulthood, before increasing later in life.Thornhill, Randy (2008). The Evolutionary Biology of Human Female Sexuality, p. 117. Oxford University Press, USA. {{ISBN|0199712484}}

As a female's capacity for reproduction comes to an end, the fat distribution within the female body begins a transition from the gynoid type to more of an android type distribution. This is evidenced by the percentages of android fat being far higher in post-menopausal than pre-menopausal women.{{Cite journal|last1=Ley|first1=C. J.|last2=Lees|first2=B.|last3=Stevenson|first3=J. C.|date=1992-05-01|title=Sex- and menopause-associated changes in body-fat distribution.|url=http://ajcn.nutrition.org/content/55/5/950|journal=The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition|language=en|volume=55|issue=5|pages=950–954|issn=0002-9165|pmid=1570802|doi=10.1093/ajcn/55.5.950}}{{Cite journal|last1=Kirchengast|first1=S.|last2=Gruber|first2=D.|last3=Sator|first3=M.|last4=Hartmann|first4=B.|last5=Knogler|first5=W.|last6=Huber|first6=J.|date=1997-01-01|title=Menopause-associated differences in female fat patterning estimated by dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry|journal=Annals of Human Biology|volume=24|issue=1|pages=45–54|doi=10.1080/03014469700004762|issn=0301-4460|pmid=9022905}}

File:Lesser Reclining male nude.jpg's 1837 Reclining Male Nude illustrates gynoid fat distribution in males.]]

The hormone estrogen inhibits fat placement in the abdominal region of the body, and stimulates fat placement in the gluteofemoral areas (the buttocks and hips). Certain hormonal imbalances can affect the fat distributions of both men and women.

Women with polycystic ovary syndrome, characterised by low estrogen, display more male type fat distributions such as a higher waist-to-hip ratio. Conversely, men who are treated with estrogen to offset testosterone related diseases such as prostate cancer may find a reduction in their waist-to-hip ratio.Johansen, Magnus D. Exercise and Health Research. Nova Publishers, 2007, p. 3.

The differences in gynoid fat between men and women can be seen in the typical "hourglass" figure of a woman, compared to the inverted triangle which is typical of the male figure. Women commonly have a higher body fat percentage than men, and the deposition of fat in particular areas is thought to be controlled by sex hormones and growth hormone (GH).Jürimäe, J., Hills, A. P., & Jürimäe, T. Cytokines, Growth Mediators and Physical Activity in Children during Puberty. Karger Medical and Scientific Publishers, 2010, p. 7.

Sexual dimorphism in distribution of gynoid fat was thought to emerge around puberty, but {{asof|2005|lc=y}} has been found to exist earlier.Goran, M. I. & Sothern, M. S. Handbook of Pediatric Obesity: Etiology, Pathophysiology, and Prevention. CRC Press, 2005, p. 42.

{{Main|Gender-affirming hormone therapy}}

Transgender men and those begin masculinizing hormone therapy see body fat redistributed within 3-6 months. Within 5 years, testosterone may cause gynoid fat to be significantly reduced.{{Cite web |title=Masculinizing hormone therapy - Mayo Clinic |url=https://www.mayoclinic.org/tests-procedures/masculinizing-hormone-therapy/about/pac-20385099 |access-date=2024-10-03 |website=www.mayoclinic.org |language=en}}{{Cite journal |last=Unger |first=Cécile A. |date=December 2016 |title=Hormone therapy for transgender patients |journal=Translational Andrology and Urology |volume=5 |issue=6 |pages=877–884 |doi=10.21037/tau.2016.09.04 |doi-access=free |issn=2223-4691 |pmc=5182227 |pmid=28078219}}

Inversely, transgender women, or those who begin feminizing hormone therapy, experience the formation of gynoid fat along with natural breast development.

{{Main|Waist to hip ratio}}

File:Venus de Milo Louvre Ma399 n4.jpg has a WHR value of 0.76.{{cite journal | first1=Jeanne |last1=Bovet |first2=Michel |last2=Raymond | title=Preferred Women's Waist-to-Hip Ratio Variation over the Last 2,500 Years | journal=PLOS ONE |date=17 April 2015 |volume=10 |issue=4 |pages=e0123284 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0123284| pmid= 25886537|pmc=4401783 |bibcode=2015PLoSO..1023284B |doi-access=free}} cited in {{cite news| url= https://www.nytimes.com/2015/05/28/arts/international/gleaning-new-perspectives-by-measuring-body-proportions-in-art.html | title= Gleaning New Perspectives by Measuring Body Proportions in Art | work = The New York Times | author = Stephen Heyman | date = May 27, 2015 | access-date= 10 September 2020}}]]

Gynoid fat bodily distribution is measured as the waist-to-hip ratio (WHR). Studies have found correlations between WHR and intelligence quotient (IQ) levels. It was found not only that women with a lower WHR (which signals higher levels of gynoid fat) had higher levels of IQ, but also that low WHR in mothers was correlated with higher IQ levels in their children.{{cite journal | last1 = Lassek | first1 = W. D. | last2 = Gaulin | first2 = S. J. | year = 2008 | title = Waist–hip ratio and cognitive ability: is gluteofemoral fat a privileged store of neurodevelopmental resources? | journal = Evolution and Human Behavior | volume = 29 | issue = 1| pages = 26–34 | doi=10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2007.07.005| bibcode = 2008EHumB..29...26L }}

Android fat distribution is also related to WHR, but is the opposite to gynoid fat.

The ratio of a woman’s gynoid to android fat is used to measure her WHR, whereby the lower the WHR, the higher gynoid to android fat ratio. Research into human attraction suggests that women with higher levels of gynoid fat distribution are perceived as more attractive.{{cite journal | last1 = Singh | first1 = D | year = 1993 | title = Body shape and women's attractiveness | journal = Human Nature | volume = 4 | issue = 3| pages = 297–321 | doi=10.1007/bf02692203 | pmid=24214368| s2cid = 26659163 }} WHR is related to various markers of health and fertility, for example a high WHR is correlated with: a low estrogen/testosterone ratio (this means that a woman has more of a 'T-shaped' body); a high ratio is also correlated to circulatory system problems such as heart attacks and strokes; more disease (e.g. cancer); and is a general sign of increased age and hence lower fertility, therefore supporting the adaptive significance of an attractive WHR.{{cite journal | last1 = Singh | first1 = D | year = 1993 | title = Adaptive significance of female physical attractiveness: role of waist-to-hip ratio | journal = Journal of Personality and Social Psychology | volume = 65 | issue = 2| pages = 293–307 | doi=10.1037/0022-3514.65.2.293 | pmid=8366421| citeseerx = 10.1.1.492.9539 }} This advantage of being more fertile has been supported by various studies, for example artificial insemination studies involving sperm donors, where the best predictor of success is a low WHR.{{cite journal | last1 = Zaadstra | first1 = B. M. | last2 = Seidell | first2 = J. C. | last3 = Van Noord | first3 = P. | last4 = te Velde | first4 = E. R. | last5 = Habbema | first5 = J. D. | last6 = Vrieswijk | first6 = B. | last7 = Karbaat | first7 = J. | year = 1993 | title = Fat and female fecundity: prospective study of effect of body fat distribution on conception rates | journal = BMJ | volume = 306 | issue = 6876| pages = 484–487 | doi=10.1136/bmj.306.6876.484 | pmid=8448457 | pmc=1676805}} Similarly, a high WHR has been associated with impairment in the pregnancy rate of IVF (in vitro fertilisation) embryo transfer women due to the higher levels of android fat distribution.{{cite journal | last1 = Wass | first1 = P. | last2 = Waldenström | first2 = U. | last3 = Rössner | first3 = S. | last4 = Hellberg | first4 = D. | year = 1997 | title = An android body fat distribution in females impairs the pregnancy rate of in-vitro fertilization-embryo transfer | journal = Human Reproduction | volume = 12 | issue = 9| pages = 2057–2060 | doi=10.1093/humrep/12.9.2057 | pmid=9363729| doi-access = free }} Further studies have also found that oestrogen replacement in women lowers the WHR in pre- and post-menopausal women, and that this is because oestrogen replacement maintains gynoid fat distribution in the body.{{cite journal | last1 = Genazzani | first1 = A. R. | last2 = Gambacciani | first2 = M. | year = 2006 | title = Effect of climacteric transition and hormone replacement therapy on body weight and body fat distribution | journal = Gynecological Endocrinology | volume = 22 | issue = 3| pages = 145–150 | doi=10.1080/09513590600629092 | pmid=16835076| s2cid = 32187013 }}

Liposuction may give the illusion of different gynoid fat distribution.{{cite journal | last1 = Singh | first1 = D. | last2 = Randall | first2 = P. K. | year = 2007 | title = Beauty is in the eye of the plastic surgeon: Waist–hip ratio (WHR) and women's attractiveness | journal = Personality and Individual Differences | volume = 43 | issue = 2| pages = 329–340 | doi=10.1016/j.paid.2006.12.003}} Other examples include fat transfer micrograft surgery,{{cite journal | last1 = Dixson | first1 = B. J. | last2 = Li | first2 = B. | last3 = Dixson | first3 = A. F. | year = 2010 | title = Female waist-to-hip ratio, body mass index and sexual attractiveness in China | journal = Current Zoology | volume = 56 | issue = 2| pages = 175–181 | doi = 10.1093/czoolo/56.2.175 | doi-access = free }} which involves the deposition of adipose tissue, previously taken from the waist, into the buttocks. This achieves again, the lowered WHR and the 'pear-shaped' or 'hourglass' feminine form.{{cite journal | last1 = Singh | first1 = D. | last2 = Young | first2 = R. K. | year = 1995 | title = Body weight, waist-to-hip ratio, breasts, and hips: Role in judgments of female attractiveness and desirability for relationships | journal = Ethology and Sociobiology | volume = 16 | issue = 6| pages = 483–507 | doi=10.1016/0162-3095(95)00074-7}}

Although liposuction changes the apparent WHR, it does not fix underlying metabolic problems. {{cite journal |doi=10.1007/s11695-015-1797-1 |pmid=26210190 |title=Short- and Long-Term Effects of Abdominal Lipectomy on Weight and Fat Mass in Females: A Systematic Review |journal=Obesity Surgery |volume=25 |issue=10 |pages=1950–8 |year=2015 |last1=Seretis |first1=Konstantinos |last2=Goulis |first2=Dimitrios G |last3=Koliakos |first3=Georgios |last4=Demiri |first4=Efterpi |s2cid=37230028 }}{{cite journal|last1=Seretis|first1=K|last2=Goulis|first2=DG|last3=Koliakos|first3=G|last4=Demiri|first4=E|title=The effects of abdominal lipectomy in metabolic syndrome components and insulin sensitivity in females: A systematic review and meta-analysis.|journal=Metabolism: Clinical and Experimental|date=December 2015|volume=64|issue=12|pages=1640–9|pmid=26475176|doi=10.1016/j.metabol.2015.09.015}}

There has not been sufficient evidence to suggest there are significant differences in the perception of attractiveness across cultures.

Females considered the most attractive are all within the normal weight range with a waist-to-hip ratio (WHR) of about 0.7, regardless of body mass index (BMI), and this finding can be seen as consistent across Indonesian, Chinese, White and African-American young men and women.{{Cite journal|last1=Singh|first1=Devendra|last2=Luis|first2=Suwardi|date=1995-03-01|title=Ethnic and gender consensus for the effect of waist-to-hip ratio on judgment of women's attractiveness|journal=Human Nature|language=en|volume=6|issue=1|pages=51–65|doi=10.1007/BF02734135|pmid=24202830|s2cid=21974550|issn=1045-6767}} Psychologists have argued that evolutionary selection processes have facilitated this relationship between WHR and female attractiveness, which has resulted in a consensus that seems to transcend cultural boundaries.{{Cite journal|title=Cross-cultural consensus for waist–hip ratio and women's attractiveness |journal=Evolution and Human Behavior|volume=31|issue=3|pages=176–181|doi=10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2009.09.001|year=2010|last1=Singh|first1=Devendra|last2=Dixson|first2=B.J.|last3=Jessop|first3=T.S.|last4=Morgan|first4=B.|last5=Dixson|first5=A.F.|bibcode=2010EHumB..31..176S }}

{{Portal|Biology}}

• {{anli|Android fat distribution}}
• {{anli|Waist-to-height ratio}}

{{Reflist}}

Category:Human body

Category:Women's health

Category:Physical attractiveness