history of rail transport in Great Britain

File:GBR rail passengers by year 1830-2023.png

File:Virgin Trains class 87 & train.jpg electric locomotive and Mark 3 coaches operated by franchisee Virgin Trains, c.2004]]

The railway system of Great Britain started with the building of local isolated wooden wagonways starting in the 1560s. A patchwork of local rail links operated by small private railway companies developed in the late 18th century. These isolated links expanded during the railway boom of the 1840s into a national network, although initially being run by over one hundred competing companies. Over the course of the 19th and early 20th centuries, many of these were amalgamated or were bought by competitors until only a handful of larger companies remained. The period also saw a steady increase in government involvement, especially in safety matters, such as the Railway Inspectorate.

The entire network was brought under government control during the First World War, during which time a number of advantages of amalgamation and central planning were demonstrated. However, the government resisted calls for the nationalisation of the network. In 1923, almost all the remaining companies were grouped into the "Big Four": the Great Western Railway, the London and North Eastern Railway, the London, Midland and Scottish Railway and the Southern Railway. The "Big Four" were joint-stock public companies. During the 1920s and 1930s, rising competition from road transport reduced revenues, leading to a lack of investment and thus a period of slow decline. The "Big Four" cooperated closely during the Second World War and continued to run the railway system up until 31 December 1947.

From the start of 1948, the "Big Four" were nationalised to form British Railways. Though there were few initial changes to services, usage increased and the network became profitable. A rapid introduction of diesel and electric rolling stock to replace steam was enacted under the 1955 Modernisation Plan. However, declining passenger numbers and financial losses in the late 1950s and early 1960s prompted the controversial Beeching cuts, which saw the closure of many branch and main lines alike. High-speed intercity trains were introduced in the 1970s. During the 1980s, severe cuts in rail subsidies and above-inflation increases in fares were enacted, decreasing losses. Following the sectorisation of British Rail, InterCity became profitable.

Between 1994 and 1997, railway operations were privatised, under which the ownership of the track and infrastructure passed to Railtrack, whilst passenger operations were franchised to individual private sector operators (originally there were 25 franchises) and the freight services were sold outright. Since privatisation, passenger volumes have increased to their highest ever level, but whether this is due to privatisation is disputed. The Hatfield accident set in motion a series of events that resulted in the ultimate collapse of Railtrack and its replacement with Network Rail, a state-owned, not-for-dividend company. By 2018, government subsidies to the rail industry in real terms were roughly three times that of the late 1980s, while train fares cost more than under British Rail.

Before 1830: The pioneers

A wagonway, essentially a railway powered by animals drawing the cars or wagons, was used by German miners at Caldbeck, Cumbria, England, perhaps from the 1560s.Warren Allison, Samuel Murphy and Richard Smith, An Early Railway in the German Mines of Caldbeck in G. Boyes (ed.), Early Railways 4: Papers from the 4th International Early Railways Conference 2008 (Six Martlets, Sudbury, 2010), pp. 52–69. A wagonway was built at Prescot, near Liverpool, sometime around 1600, possibly as early as 1594. Owned by Philip Layton, the line carried coal from a pit near Prescot Hall to a terminus about half a mile away.{{cite book |last = Jones |first = Mark |title = Lancashire Railways – The History of Steam |publisher = Countryside Books |location = Newbury |date = 2012 |page = 5 |isbn = 978-1-84674-298-9}}

Another wagonway was Sir Francis Willoughby's Wollaton Wagonway in Nottinghamshire built between 1603 and 1604 to carry coal.{{cite book |last = Hylton |first = Stuart |title = The Grand Experiment: the Birth of the Railway Age 1820-1845 |publisher = Ian Allan Publishing |year = 2007 |isbn = 978-0-7110-3172-2}}

As early as 1671 railed roads were in use in Durham to ease the conveyance of coal; the first of these was the Tanfield Wagonway.{{cite book |title = The Pictorial Encyclopedia of Railways |first = Hamilton |last = Ellis |publisher = The Hamlyn Publishing Group |year = 1968 |page = 12}} Many of these tramroads or wagon ways were built in the 17th and 18th centuries. They used simply straight and parallel rails of timber on which carts with simple flanged iron wheels were drawn by horses, enabling several wagons to be moved simultaneously. The first public railway in the world was the Lake Lock Rail Road, a narrow-gauge railway built near Wakefield, West Yorkshire, England.{{cite book |title = Retracing the First Public Railway. Living History Local Guide No 4 |last = Bayliss |first = D. A. |date = 1981}}{{pn|date=September 2022}}{{cite book |title = Secret Wakefield |last = Dawson |first = Paul L. |publisher = Amberley Publishing Limited |date = 15 November 2015}}{{pn|date=September 2022}}{{cite book |title = The History and Practice of Britain's Railways: A New Research Agenda |last = Ambler |first = D.W. |publisher = Ashgate |date = 1989}}{{pn|date=September 2022}}

The early wooden railways were improved on in 1793 when Benjamin Outram constructed a mile-long tramway with L-shaped cast iron rails.{{cite book |last = Schofield |first = R.B. |year = 2000 |title = Benjamin Outram 1764–1805: an engineering biography |location = Cardiff |publisher = Merton Priory |isbn = 1-898937-42-7}}{{pn|date=September 2022}} These rails became obsolete when William Jessop began to manufacture cast iron rails without guiding ledges – the wheels of the carts had flanges instead.{{cite book |first1 = Charles |last1 = Hadfield |first2 = Alec Westley |last2 = Skempton |title = William Jessop, Engineer |publisher = David and Charles |date = 1979}}{{pn|date=September 2022}} Cast iron is brittle and so the rails tended to break easily. Consequently, in 1820, John Birkenshaw introduced a method of rolling wrought iron rails, which were used from then onwards.Specification of John Birkinshaw's Patent], for an Improvement in the Construction of Malleable Iron Rails, to be used in Rail roads; with Remarks on the comparative Merits of Cast Metal and Malleable Iron Rail-ways. Michael Longridge, Newcastle: E. Walker, 1821. Remark: the 1838 edition (online [https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_zy_TEcisTtkC/page/n5 here]) does not contain the quoted sentences.

Image:Horsetrain 1870.jpg in 1807, photograph from 1870]]

The first passenger-carrying public railway was opened by the Swansea and Mumbles Railway at Oystermouth in 1807, using horse-drawn carriages on an existing tramline.{{cite web |url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/wales/south_west/6491379.stm |publisher = BBC News |title = Mumbles railway was 'remarkable' |date = 25 March 2007}}

In 1802, Richard Trevithick designed and built the first (unnamed) steam locomotive to run on smooth rails.{{cite book |title = Life of Richard Trevithick: With an Account of His Inventions, Volume 1 |url = https://archive.org/details/liferichardtrev01trevgoog |last = Trevithick |first = Francis |publisher = E. & F.N. Spon |date = 1872}}

File:Blenkinsop's rack locomotive, 1812 (British Railway Locomotives 1803-1853).jpg

The first commercially successful steam locomotive was Salamanca, built in 1812 by John Blenkinsop and Matthew Murray for the {{RailGauge|48in}} gauge Middleton Railway.{{cite book |title = The Pictorial Encyclopaedia of Railways |first = Hamilton |last = Ellis |publisher = The Hamlyn Publishing Group |year = 1968 |pages = 20}} Salamanca was a rack and pinion locomotive, with cog wheels driven by two cylinders embedded into the top of the centre-flue boiler.{{cite book |last = Nabarro |first = Gerald |author-link = Gerald Nabarro |title = Steam Nostalgia: Locomotive and Railway Preservation in Great Britain |publisher=Routledge and Kegan Paul |date = 1972 |location = London |isbn = 0-7100-7391-7 |page = 139}}

In 1813, William Hedley and Timothy Hackworth designed a locomotive (Puffing Billy) for use on the tramway between Stockton and Darlington.{{cite web |url = http://www.spartacus.schoolnet.co.uk/RApuffing.htm |work = Spartacus Educational |title = Puffing Billy |access-date = 24 November 2006 |url-status = dead |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20061115015112/http://www.spartacus.schoolnet.co.uk/RApuffing.htm |archive-date = 15 November 2006}} Puffing Billy featured piston rods extending upwards to pivoting beams, connected in turn by rods to a crankshaft beneath the frames which, in turn, drove the gears attached to the wheels. This meant that the wheels were coupled, allowing better traction. A year later, George Stephenson improved on that design with his first locomotive Blücher,{{cite web |url = http://www.sapiensman.com/old_trains/english.htm |title = History of the locomotives |access-date = 24 November 2006 |url-status = dead |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20061205042721/http://sapiensman.com/old_trains/english.htm |archive-date = 5 December 2006}} which was the first locomotive to use single-flanged wheels.

That design persuaded the backers of the proposed Stockton and Darlington Railway to appoint Stephenson as Engineer for the line in 1821.{{sfn|Kirby|2002|p=184}}{{sfn|Tomlinson|1915|p=74}} While traffic was originally intended to be horse-drawn, Stephenson carried out a fresh survey of the route to allow steam haulage. The Act was subsequently amended to allow the usage of steam locomotives and also to allow passengers to be carried on the railway. The 25-mile (40 km) long route opened on 27 September 1825 and, with the aid of Stephenson's Locomotion No. 1, was the first locomotive-hauled public railway in the world.{{cite book |last = Bowes |first = Alderman |title = George Stephenson, the Locomotive and the First Public Railway: A Lecture Delivered at the Salford Royal Museum and Library |publisher = John Heywood |date = 1883}}{{pn|date=September 2022}}{{cite book |last = Casserley |first = H.C. |title = Preserved locomotives |place = London |publisher = Ian Allan |year = 1976 |edition = 4th |page = 16 |isbn = 071100725X}}

1830–1922: Early development

File:Holl (after Frith) The Railway Station colorized.jpg's The Railway Station, 1862 depiction of Paddington railway station in London]]

In 1830, the Liverpool and Manchester Railway opened.{{cite web |url = https://www.scienceandindustrymuseum.org.uk/objects-and-stories/making-the-liverpool-and-manchester-railway |title = Making the Liverpool and Manchester Railway |publisher = Science and Industry Museum |access-date = 9 June 2019}} Being the world's first inter-city passenger railway and the first to have 'scheduled' services, terminal stations and services as we know them today, it set the pattern for modern railways. The railways carried freight and passengers with also the world's first goods terminal station at the Park Lane railway goods station at Liverpool's south docks, accessed by the 1.26-mile Wapping Tunnel.{{cite web |url = https://www.merseytravel.gov.uk/about-us/disclosure-logs/Documents/RSN16726%20-%20EIR%20Request%20-%20Wapping%20Tunnel%20Feasbility%20Study.pdf |website = merseytravel.gov.uk |access-date = 4 March 2018 |title = City Line to Northern Line Connection Feasibility Study |archive-date = 3 March 2018 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20180303225425/https://www.merseytravel.gov.uk/about-us/disclosure-logs/Documents/RSN16726%20-%20EIR%20Request%20-%20Wapping%20Tunnel%20Feasbility%20Study.pdf |url-status = dead }}{{cite web |url = http://www.engineering-timelines.com/scripts/engineeringItem.asp?id=757 |title = Wapping and Crown Street Tunnels |publisher = Engineering Timelines |date = |access-date = 14 September 2016}} In 1836, at the Liverpool end the line was extended to Lime Street station in Liverpool's city centre via a 1.1 mile long tunnel.{{cite web |url = http://www.liverpoolecho.co.uk/news/liverpool-news/merseyside-tales-liverpool-lime-street-3346776 |title = Merseyside Tales: Liverpool Lime Street station's development |work = Liverpool Echo |date = 7 April 2012 |access-date = 16 February 2017}}

Many of the first public railways were built as local rail links operated by small private railway companies. With increasing rapidity, more and more lines were built, often with scant regard for their potential for traffic. The 1840s were by far the biggest decade for railway growth.{{Citation |last = Campbell |first = Gareth |title = Government Policy during the British Railway Mania and the 1847 Commercial Crisis |date = 2014 |url = https://oxford.universitypressscholarship.com/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199688661.001.0001/acprof-9780199688661-chapter-4 |work = British Financial Crises since 1825 |pages = 58–75 |publisher = Oxford University Press |doi = 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199688661.003.0004 |isbn = 978-0-19-968866-1}}{{cite book |title = The World's First Railway System: Enterprise, Competition, and Regulation on the Railway Network in Victorian Britain |first = Mark |last = Casson |publisher = OUP Oxford |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=vT0TDAAAQBAJ&q=%22Railway+Mania%22+-wikipedia&pg=PA29 |date = 2009 |pages = 29, 289, 298, 320 |isbn = 9780199213979 |access-date = 6 December 2019}} In 1840, when the decade began, railway lines in Britain were few and scattered but, within ten years, a virtually complete network had been laid down and the vast majority of towns and villages had a rail connection{{Citation needed|date=August 2010}} and in some cases even two or three. Over the course of the 19th and early 20th centuries, most of the pioneering independent railway companies amalgamated or were bought by competitors, until only a handful of larger companies remained (see Railway Mania).

Other nations quickly sought to obtain British expertise in this field to develop their own railways. The British-built Patentee class locomotive Le Belge was constructed for the first main line on the European mainland, the Brussels-Mechelen line,{{cite web|url=http://www.tassignon.be/trains/Vapeur%20Belge/Vapeur_Belge.htm|title=La Construction des LOCOMOTIVES à VAPEUR en Belgique|work=www.tassignon.be|language=French}} while Adler, another Patentee class locomotive, hauled the first commercially successful passengers and goods trains in Germany.Markus Hehl: Der "Adler" – Deutschlands erste Dampflokomotive. Weltbild, Augsburg 2008, p. 32. To several of these customers, Britain's pioneering railway industry was associated with power, daringness and rapidity.Peter Heigl. Adler – Stationen einer Lokomotive im Laufe dreier Jahrhunderte. Buch & Kunstverlag Oberpfalz, Amberg, 2009, {{ISBN|978-3-935719-55-1}}, p. 30

The period also saw a steady increase in government involvement, especially in safety matters. The 1840 "Act for Regulating Railways"[http://www.railwaysarchive.co.uk/docSummary.php?docID=57 1840 Railway Regulation Act], originally published by HMSO; link is to The Railways Archive empowered the Board of Trade to appoint railway inspectors. The Railway Inspectorate was established in 1840, to enquire into the causes of accidents and recommend ways of avoiding them.{{cite book |last = Hall |first = Stanley |title = Railway Detectives: The 150-year Saga of the Railway Inspectorate |publisher = Ian Allan Ltd |place = Shepperton |date = 28 September 1990 |isbn = 978-0-7110-1929-4}} As early as 1844, a bill had been put before Parliament suggesting the state purchase of the railways; this was not adopted. It did, however, lead to the introduction of minimum standards for the construction of carriages[http://www.railwaysarchive.co.uk/docSummary.php?docID=58 1844 Railway Regulation Act], originally published by HMSO; link is to The Railways Archive and the compulsory provision of 3rd class accommodation for passengers – so-called "Parliamentary trains".MacDermott, E.T., History of the Great Western Railway, London: Great Western Railway, 1927, Vol. 1, part 2, page 640

The railway companies ceased to be profitable after the mid-1870s.{{cite web |url = http://www2.warwick.ac.uk/fac/soc/economics/research/workingpapers/2008/twerp_859c.pdf |title = How good was the profitability of British Railways, 1870–1912? |last1 = Mitchell |first1 = Brian |last2 = Chambers |first2 = David |date = August 2009 |work = University of Warwick |url-status = live |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20151208062203/http://www2.warwick.ac.uk/fac/soc/economics/research/workingpapers/2008/twerp_859c.pdf |archive-date = 8 December 2015 |access-date = 20 March 2020 |last3 = Crafts |first3 = Nicholas}} Nationalisation of the railways was first proposed by William Ewart Gladstone as early as the 1840s, and calls for nationalisation continued throughout that century, with F. Keddell writing in 1890 that "The only valid ground for maintaining the monopoly would be the proof that the Railway Companies have made a fair and proper use of their great powers, and have conduced to the prosperity of the people. But the exact contrary is the case."{{Cite book |last = Keddell |first = F |title = The Nationalisation of Our Railway System: Its Justices and Advantages |publisher = The Modern Press |year = 1890 |location = London}} The entire network was brought under government control during the First World War, and a number of advantages of amalgamation and planning were achieved.{{cite web |url = https://media.nationalarchives.gov.uk/index.php/railways-and-the-mobilisation-for-war-in-1914/ |title = Railways and the mobilisation for war in 1914 |website = nationalarchives.gov.uk |first = Bruno |last = Derrick |date = 8 September 2011}}{{cite web |url = https://www.railwaymuseum.org.uk/objects-and-stories/ambulance-trains-bringing-first-world-war-home |title = AMBULANCE TRAINS: BRINGING THE FIRST WORLD WAR HOME |website = railwaymuseum.org.uk |date = 1 February 2019}} However, the Conservative members of the wartime coalition government resisted calls for the formal nationalisation of the railways in 1921.

1923–1947: The Big Four

On 1 January 1923, almost all the railway companies were grouped into the Big Four: the Great Western Railway, the London and North Eastern Railway, the London, Midland and Scottish Railway and the Southern Railway companies.{{cite web |url = http://www.railwaysarchive.co.uk/docSummary.php?docID=65 |title = Railways Act 1921 |author = HM Government |year = 1921 |via= The Railways Archive |publisher =HMSO |access-date = 25 November 2006}} A number of other lines, already operating as joint railways, remained separate from the Big Four; these included the Somerset and Dorset Joint Railway and the Midland and Great Northern Joint Railway. The "Big Four" were joint-stock public companies and they continued to run the railway system until 31 December 1947.

Image:Bittern locomotive king's cross.JPG streamlined loco hauled express trains of the 1930s offered a high-speed alternative to road transport]]

The competition from road transport during the 1920s and 1930s greatly reduced the revenue available to the railways, even though the needs for maintenance on the network had never been higher, as investment had been deferred over the past decade. Rail companies accused the government of favouring road haulage through the construction of roads subsidised by the taxpayer, while restricting the rail industry's ability to use flexible pricing because it was held to nationally agreed rate cards. The government response was to commission several inconclusive reports; the Salter Report of 1933 finally recommended that road transport should be taxed directly to fund the roads and increased Vehicle Excise Duty and fuel duties were introduced. It also noted that many small lines would never be likely to compete with road haulage.{{cite news |work = The Times |date = 31 January 1933 |title = Road And Rail - A Defence Of The Salter Report |last = Stamp |first = Josiah |author-link = Josiah Stamp, 1st Baron Stamp }}{{cite book |last = Salter |first = Arthur |title = Toward a Planned Economy |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=KNwzAAAAIAAJ |publisher = John Day |location = New York |year = 1934}} Although these road pricing changes helped their survival, the railways entered a period of slow decline, owing to a lack of investment and changes in transport policy and lifestyles.

Several highpoints and innovations did occur during this period. Throughout the 1920s and 1930s, the Southern Railway invested heavily into railway electrification;{{sfn|White|1969|pp=181–183}} by the end of 1929, the Southern operated over {{fract|277|1|2}} route miles ({{convert|277+1/2|mi|disp=output only}}) of third rail electrified track and in that year ran 17.8 million electric train miles.{{sfn|White|1969|p=193}}Moody 1963, pp. 56–75. During 1933, the Great Western Railway introduced the first of its diesel-powered railcars, an early move towards the long term future of the passenger trains.{{cite web |title = Great Western railcars. The Park Royal bodied railcars, numbers 1 to 4. |url = http://www.greatwestern.org.uk/aec1.htm |publisher = The Great Western Archive |access-date = 2 March 2020}}{{Cite book |last = Judge |first = C. W. |title = The history of Great Western A.E.C. diesel railcars |date = 2008 |publisher = Noodle |isbn = 978-1-906419-11-0 |location = Southampton |oclc = 233788958}} On 3 July 1938, the London and North Eastern Railway's Class A4 4468 Mallard set a world speed record of {{convert|126|mph|km/h|1|abbr=on}}.{{cite book |last = Hughes |first = Geoffrey |title = Sir Nigel Gresley: The Engineer and his Family |year = 2001 |publisher = The Oakwood Press |isbn = 0-85361-579-9 |page = 147}}{{cite book |title = Speed on the East Coast Main Line |page = 64 |first = P.W.B. |last = Semmens |year = 1989 |publisher = Patrick Stephens |isbn = 978-0850599305}}

During the Second World War, the companies' managements joined together, effectively operating as one company, to assisting the country's war effort. The railway network suffered heavy damage in some areas due to German Luftwaffe bombing, especially in cities such as London and Coventry; 482 locomotives, 13,314 passenger and 16,132 freight vehicles were damaged.{{cite magazine |magazine = The Railway Magazine |date = July–August 1946 |page = xi |issue = 564 |volume = 92 |location = Westminster |publisher = Railway Publishing Co |title = Catching Up .... (advert by the 'Big Four') }} This damage put a severe strain on the railways' resources and a substantial maintenance backlog developed. After 1945, for both practical and ideological reasons, the government decided to bring the rail industry into the public sector.{{cite web |url = http://www.railwaysarchive.co.uk/docSummary.php?docID=67 |title = Transport Act 1947 |author = Her Majesty's Government |year = 1947 |via = The Railways Archive |publisher = Her Majesty's Stationery Office |access-date = 25 November 2006 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120325224406/http://www.railwaysarchive.co.uk/docsummary.php?docID=67 |archive-date = 25 March 2012 |url-status = live }}{{cite web |url = http://www.railwaysarchive.co.uk/history4.php |archive-url = https://archive.today/20080917222402/http://www.railwaysarchive.co.uk/history4.php |url-status = dead |archive-date = 17 September 2008 |title = The Nationalised Railway: 1948 – 1992 |work = The Railways Archive |access-date = 6 September 2008}}

1948–1994: British Rail

File:British Railways filmstrip (2).jpg

From the start of 1948, the railways were nationalised to form British Railways (latterly "British Rail") under the control of the British Transport Commission.{{cite web |url = http://www.railwaysarchive.co.uk/docSummary.php?docID=67 |title = Transport Act 1947 |author = Her Majesty's Government |year = 1947 |via= The Railways Archive |publisher =Her Majesty's Stationery Office |access-date = 25 November 2006}} Though there were few initial changes to the service, usage increased and the network became profitable. Regeneration of track and stations was completed by 1954. Rail revenue fell and, in 1955, the network again ceased to be profitable. The mid-1950s saw the hasty introduction of diesel and electric rolling stock to replace steam in a modernisation plan costing many millions of pounds but the expected transfer back from road to rail did not occur and losses began to mount.{{cite web |url = http://www.ndad.nationalarchives.gov.uk/AH/37/detail.html |title = British Railways Board history |access-date = 25 November 2006 |publisher = The National Archives |url-status = dead |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20061014033802/http://www.ndad.nationalarchives.gov.uk/AH/37/detail.html |archive-date = 14 October 2006}}{{cite web |url = http://www.railwaysarchive.co.uk/docSummary.php?docID=23 |title = Modernisation and Re-Equipment of British Rail |author = British Transport Commission |publisher =British Transport Commission |year = 1954 |via= The Railways Archive |access-date = 25 November 2006 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20061031102337/http://www.railwaysarchive.co.uk/docSummary.php?docID=23 |archive-date = 31 October 2006 |url-status = dead}} This failure to make the railways more profitable through investment led governments of all political persuasions to restrict rail investment to a drip feed and seek economies through cutbacks.

The desire for profitability led to a major reduction in the network during the mid-1960s. Dr. Richard Beeching was given the task by the government of re-organising the railways ("the Beeching Axe").{{cite web |url = http://www.railwaysarchive.co.uk/docSummary.php?docID=13| title = The Reshaping of British Railways - Part 1: Report |author = British Transport Commission |year = 1963 |via= The Railways Archive |publisher =Her Majesty's Stationery Office |access-date = 25 November 2006}}{{cite web |url = http://www.railwaysarchive.co.uk/docSummary.php?docID=35 |title = The Reshaping of British Railways - Part 2: Maps |author = British Transport Commission |year = 1963 |via= The Railways Archive |publisher =Her Majesty's Stationery Office |access-date = 25 November 2006 }} This policy resulted in many branch lines and secondary routes being closed because they were deemed uneconomic; the closure of one-third of all stations, typically serving rural communities, removed much feeder traffic from main line passenger services.{{cite news |work = The Times |title = Beeching Report Proposes Closing Nearly a Third of Britain's 7,000 Railway Stations |date = 28 March 1963 |issue = 55661 |page = 8 |url = https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/CS134440060/TTDA?u=kccl&sid=bookmark-TTDA&xid=722ec50c}} The closure of many freight depots that had been used by larger industries such as coal and iron led to much freight transferring to road haulage. The sweeping closures were extremely unpopular with the general public at that time and remain so today.{{cite news |url = https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-21938349 |title = Did Dr Beeching get it wrong with his railway cuts 50 years ago? |publisher = BBC News |date = 27 March 2013}}{{cite web |url = http://www.railwaysarchive.co.uk/docSummary.php?docID=236 |title = The Economics and Social Aspects of the Beeching Plan |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110605021806/http://www.railwaysarchive.co.uk/docsummary.php?docID=236 |archive-date = 5 June 2011 |author = Lord Stoneham |publisher = House of Lords |via = railwaysarchive.co.uk |date = 1963}}

Passenger levels decreased steadily from the late fifties to late seventies.The UK [http://www.dft.gov.uk/stellent/groups/dft_transstats/documents/divisionhomepage/031571.hcsp Department for Transport] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20041017235852/http://www.dft.gov.uk/stellent/groups/dft_transstats/documents/divisionhomepage/031571.hcsp |date=17 October 2004 }} (DfT), specifically Table 6.1 from [http://www.dft.gov.uk/stellent/groups/dft_transstats/documents/downloadable/dft_transstats_613483.pdf Transport Statistics Great Britain 2006] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080908033415/http://www.dft.gov.uk/stellent/groups/dft_transstats/documents/downloadable/dft_transstats_613483.pdf |date=8 September 2008 }} (4MB PDF file) Passenger services then experienced a renaissance with the introduction of the high-speed InterCity 125 trains in the late 1970s and early 1980s.{{cite book |last = Marsden |first = Colin J. |title = British Rail 1983 Motive Power: Combined Volume |year = 1983 |publisher = Ian Allan |location = London |isbn = 978-0-7110-1284-4}}{{cite news |title = New train speeds into service |url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/october/4/newsid_2486000/2486817.stm |access-date = 15 May 2019 |work = BBC News |date = 4 October 1976}} The 1980s saw severe cuts in government funding and above-inflation increases in fares, but the service became more cost-effective. Investment was made into the electrification of the East Coast Main Line (ECML) and the InterCity 225 electric high speed train introduced during the late 1980s.{{cite web |title = FROM THE ARCHIVES: Class 91s...promise unfulfilled |url = https://www.railmagazine.com/news/rail-features/class-91spromise-unfulfilled |publisher = Rail Magazine |access-date = 14 May 2022}}{{cite book |last1 = Semmens |first1 = Peter |title = Speed On The East Coast Main Line: A Century and a Half of Accelerated Services |date = 1990 |publisher = Patrick Stephens Ltd |isbn = 0-85059-930-X |page = 235}} In the mid 1980s, British Rail begun to replace its large fleet of first generation DMUs with a new rolling stock, namely the Pacer and Sprinter families.{{cite journal |last1 = Shore |first1 = A. G. L. |title = British Rail Diesel Multiple Unit Replacement Programme |journal = Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Part D: Transport Engineering |date = April 1987 |volume = 201 |issue = 2 |pages = 115–122 |doi = 10.1243/PIME_PROC_1987_201_165_02 |s2cid = 109194039 }}{{cite Q|Q112224535 |author-link = David St John Thomas |first1 = David St John |last1 = Thomas |last2 = Whitehouse |first2 = Patrick}}

During 1972, British Rail was reorganised; under sectorisation, three passenger sectors were created: InterCity, operating principal express services; London & South East (renamed Network SouthEast in 1986) operating commuter services in the London area; Provincial (renamed Regional Railways in 1989) responsible for all other passenger services. Following sectorisation, InterCity became profitable and one of Britain's top 150 companies, operating city centre to city centre travel across the nation from Aberdeen and Inverness in the north to Poole and Penzance in the south.{{cite news |url = http://www.railstaff.uk/2013/12/19/the-fall-and-rise-of-britains-railways-3/ |title = The fall and rise of Britain's railways |work = Rail Staff News |date = 19 December 2013 |access-date = 11 November 2016}}

Between 1994 and 1997, British Rail was privatised by the Conservative government under John Major.{{cite web |url = http://www.railwaysarchive.co.uk/docSummary.php?docID=12 |title = Railways Act 1993 |author = Her Majesty's Government |year = 1903 |via= The Railways Archive |publisher =Her Majesty's Stationery Office |access-date = 26 November 2006}}{{cite journal |url = https://www.socresonline.org.uk/7/1/strangleman.html |first = Tim |last = Strangleman |date = 2002 |title = Nostalgia for Nationalisation – the Politics of Privatisation |journal = Sociological Research Online |volume = 7 |number = 1 |pages = 92–105 |doi = 10.5153/sro.701 |s2cid = 144684740 |access-date = 5 December 2022 |archive-date = 5 December 2022 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20221205024644/https://www.socresonline.org.uk/7/1/strangleman.html |url-status = live }} Ownership of the track and infrastructure passed to Railtrack, passenger operations were franchised to individual private sector operators (originally there were 25 franchises) and the freight services sold outright (six companies were set up, but five of these were sold to the same buyer).{{cite web |url = http://www.ews-railway.co.uk/about/history.html |title = EWS Railway - Company History |access-date = 26 November 2006 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20061212111054/http://ews-railway.co.uk/about/history.html |archive-date = 12 December 2006}}{{cite news |url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk_politics/982037.stm |title = The great train sell-off: Who dunnit? |work = BBC News |date = 20 October 2000 |access-date = 5 December 2022 |archive-date = 5 December 2022 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20221205033050/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk_politics/982037.stm |url-status = live }}{{cite web |url = https://researchbriefings.files.parliament.uk/documents/SN01224/SN01224.pdf |title = Railways: Railtrack, 1994–2002 |date = 24 March 2010 |website = parliament.uk |first = Louise |last = Butcher |access-date = 5 December 2022 |archive-date = 19 December 2022 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20221219194843/https://researchbriefings.files.parliament.uk/documents/SN01224/SN01224.pdf |url-status = live }}

1995 onwards: Post-privatisation

{{Main|History of rail transport in Great Britain 1995 to date|Impact of the privatisation of British Rail|2016–18 United Kingdom rail strikes}}

File:Paddington Station.jpg's London terminus at Paddington ]]

File:Rail modal share.png

File:GB Rail Subsidy, 1985-2019.png in 2000 then a further increase to fund Crossrail and HS2]]

Since privatisation, numbers of passengers have grown rapidly; by 2010 the railways were carrying more passengers than at any time since the 1920s.The UK [http://www.rail-reg.gov.uk/server/show/nav.129 Office of Rail Regulation] {{webarchive|url = http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20081109123120/http%3A//www.rail%2Dreg.gov.uk/server/show/nav.129 |date = 9 November 2008 }} (ORR), specifically Section 1.2 from [http://www.rail-reg.gov.uk/upload/pdf/303.pdf National Rail Trends 2006-2007 Q1] {{webarchive|url = http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20081107213330/http%3A//www.rail%2Dreg.gov.uk/upload/pdf/303.pdf |date = 7 November 2008 }} (PDF file){{cite web |url = http://www.atoc.org/media-centre/atoc-press-releases/2011/01/31/growth-of-69-in-2010-takes-demand-for-rail-travel-to-new-high-levels-100551/ |url-status = dead |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150225091921/http://www.atoc.org/media-centre/atoc-press-releases/2011/01/31/growth-of-69-in-2010-takes-demand-for-rail-travel-to-new-high-levels-100551/ |archive-date = 25 February 2015 |access-date = 25 February 2015 |title = Growth of 6.9% in 2010 takes demand for rail travel to new high levels |publisher = Association of Train Operating Companies |date = February 2011}} and by 2014 passenger numbers had expanded to their highest level ever, more than doubling in the 20 years since privatisation. Train fares cost more than under British Rail.{{cite news |title = Train fares cost 0.6% more than under British Rail |url = https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/3537858/Train-fares-cost-more-than-under-British-Rail.html |work = The Daily Telegraph |access-date = 7 July 2015 |date = 1 December 2008 |last1 = Swaine |first1 = Jon}}

The railways have become significantly safer since privatisation and are now the safest in Europe.{{cite web |url = http://orr.gov.uk/news-and-media/press-releases/2015/britains-railways-now-safest-in-europe,-but-regulator-highlights-priorities-for-improvement |title = Britain's railways now safest in Europe |publisher = Office of Road and Rail |access-date = 12 December 2015 |archive-date = 15 December 2018 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20181215122934/http://orr.gov.uk/news-and-media/press-releases/2015/britains-railways-now-safest-in-europe,-but-regulator-highlights-priorities-for-improvement |url-status = dead }} However, the public image of rail travel was damaged by some prominent accidents shortly after privatisation. These included the Southall rail crash (where a train with its faulty Automatic Warning System disconnected passed a stop signal),{{cite web |url = http://www.railwaysarchive.co.uk/docSummary.php?docID=168 |title = Investigation The Southall Rail Accident Inquiry Report |author = Professor John Uff (QC FREng) |year = 2000 |work = The Railways Archive |publisher = (Originally published by Her Majesty's Stationery Office) |access-date = 30 November 2006}} the Ladbroke Grove rail crash (also caused by a train passing a stop signal){{cite web |url = http://www.railwaysarchive.co.uk/docSummary.php?docID=38 |title = The Ladbroke Grove Rail Inquiry: Part 1 Report |author = The Rt Hon Lord Cullen (PC) |year = 2001 |work = The Railways Archive |publisher = (Originally published by Her Majesty's Stationery Office) |access-date = 30 November 2006}}{{cite web |url = http://www.railwaysarchive.co.uk/docSummary.php?docID=39 |title = The Ladbroke Grove Rail Inquiry: Part 2 Report |author = The Rt Hon Lord Cullen (PC) |year = 2001 |work = The Railways Archive |publisher = (Originally published by Her Majesty's Stationery Office) |access-date = 30 November 2006}} and the Hatfield accident (caused by a rail fragmenting due to the development of microscopic cracks).{{cite web |url = http://www.railwaysarchive.co.uk/docSummary.php?docID=188 |title = Hatfield Report and Recommendations |author1 = Railway Safety |author2 = Standards Board |year = 2004 |work = The Railways Archive |publisher = (Originally published by Her Majesty's Stationery Office) |access-date = 30 November 2006}}{{cite news |first = Philip |last = Pank |title = Rail safety 'still an issue' 10 years after Hatfield |newspaper = The Times |date = 18 October 2010 |page = 11 |access-date = 22 August 2016 |url = http://find.galegroup.com/ttda/infomark.do?&source=gale&prodId=TTDA&userGroupName=wes_ttda&tabID=T003&docPage=article&searchType=BasicSearchForm&docId=IF504134828&type=multipage&contentSet=LTO&version=1.0 |url-access = subscription |archive-date = 12 January 2021 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210112000228/https://galeapps.gale.com/apps/auth?userGroupName=wes_ttda&origURL=https%3A%2F%2Fgo.gale.com%2Fps%2Fi.do%3Faction%3Dinterpret%26id%3DGALE%7CIF0504134828%26v%3D2.1%26u%3Dwes_ttda%26it%3Dr%26p%3DTTDA%26sw%3Dw&prodId=TTDA |url-status = live}}

Following the Hatfield accident, the rail infrastructure company Railtrack imposed over 1,200 emergency speed restrictions across its network and instigated an extremely costly nationwide track replacement programme. The consequential severe operational disruption to the national network and the company's spiralling costs set in motion the series of events which resulted in the ultimate collapse of the company and its replacement with Network Rail, a state-owned, not-for-dividend company.{{cite web |url = http://www.networkrail.co.uk/aspx/729.aspx |title = Network Rail - Our History |access-date = 30 November 2006 |publisher = Network Rail}}{{cite web |url = http://www.busman.qmul.ac.uk/research/researchcentres/Thecentreformanagementandorganisationalhistory/148170.pdf |page = 18 |title = Accounting for Producer Needs: The case of Britain's rail infrastructure |publisher = Centre for Management and Organisational History |access-date = 12 October 2015 |url-status = dead |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160304075330/http://www.busman.qmul.ac.uk/research/researchcentres/Thecentreformanagementandorganisationalhistory/148170.pdf |archive-date = 4 March 2016 }}

Since April 2016, the British railway network has been severely disrupted on many occasions by wide-reaching rail strikes, affecting rail franchises across the country.{{Cite news |url = https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-42597824 |title = Strikes under way in train safety row |work = BBC News |date = 8 January 2018}} The industrial action began on Southern services as a dispute over the planned introduction of driver-only operation,{{Cite news |url = https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-36133358 |title = Southern rail strike causes disruption |work = BBC News |date = 26 April 2016}} and has since expanded to cover many different issues affecting the rail industry; as of February 2018, the majority of the industrial action remains unresolved, with further strikes planned.{{Cite news |url = https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-43160594 |title = RMT announces new strike on Southern rail |work = BBC News |date = 22 February 2018}} The COVID-19 pandemic of the early 2020s caused a massive drop in passenger numbers,{{Cite news |date = 18 August 2020 |title = Cut rail fares to counter Covid slump in train travel, watchdog urges |language = en-gb |work = The Guardian |url = https://www.theguardian.com/money/2020/aug/18/cut-rail-fares-to-counter-covid-slump-in-train-travel-watchdog-urges |access-date = 15 December 2020}}{{Cite news |date = 20 March 2020 |title = Coronavirus: Train services to be cut amid falling demand |language = en-GB |work = BBC News |url = https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-51969981 |access-date = 15 December 2020}}{{Cite web |title = Impact of Covid-19 on the railways: could the pandemic bloster rail travel? |url = https://www.railway-technology.com/features/covid-impact-railways/ |access-date = 15 December 2020 |website = www.railway-technology.com |date = 11 August 2020 }}

As of 2018, government subsidies to the rail industry in real terms were roughly three times that of the late 1980s.{{cite web |url = https://fullfact.org/economy/how-much-does-government-subsidise-railways/ |title = How much does the government subsidise the railways by? |last = Rahman |first = Grace |publisher = Full Fact |date = 7 November 2018 |access-date = 5 December 2019}}

References

Sources

=General=

{{cite book |title = The Oxford Companion to British Railway History: From 1603 to the 1990s |editor1-link = Jack Simmons (historian) |editor1-first = Jack |editor1-last = Simmons |editor2-first = Gordon |editor2-last = Biddle |edition = 2nd |year = 1999 }}
{{cite book |last = White |first = H. P. |title = Forgotten Railways |year = 1986 |publisher = David St. John Thomas |location = Newton Abbot, Devon |isbn = 978-0-946537-13-6 }}
{{cite book |title = Illustrated History of the Railroads |last = Westwood |first = John |publisher = Brompton Books }}

=Pre-1830=

{{cite book |last1 = Hadfield |first1 = Charles |last2 = Skempton |first2 = A. W. |title = William Jessop, Engineer |date = January 1979 |publisher = M.& M.Baldwin |location = Newton Abbot |isbn = 978-0-7153-7603-4 }}
{{cite book |last = Kirby |first = Maurice W. |title = The Origins of Railway Enterprise: The Stockton and Darlington Railway 1821–1863 |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=xVY1VL-rA1gC |date = 4 July 2002 |publisher = Cambridge University Press |isbn = 978-0-521-89280-3 }}
{{cite book |last = Schofield |first = R.B. |title = Benjamin Outram, 1764-1805: An Engineering Biography |date = October 2000 |publisher = Merton Priory Press |location = Cardiff |isbn = 978-1-898937-42-5 }}
{{cite book |last = Ransom |first = P.J.G.|title = The Victorian Railway and How It Evolved |date = July 1989 |publisher = William Heinemann |location = London |isbn = 978-0-434-98083-3 }}
{{cite book |title = The North Eastern Railway: Its rise and development |first = William Weaver |author-link = William Weaver Tomlinson |last = Tomlinson |url = //archive.org/details/northeasternrail00tomlrich |year = 1915 |publisher = Andrew Reid and Company |oclc = 504251788 }}
{{cite web |url = http://www.smr.herefordshire.gov.uk/post-medieval/railways/railway_timeline.htm |title = The History of the Railway in Britain |access-date = 24 November 2006 |work = Historic Herefordshire Online |archive-date = 3 March 2006 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20060303102836/http://www.smr.herefordshire.gov.uk/post-medieval/railways/railway_timeline.htm |url-status = dead }}
{{cite web |url = http://www.sapiensman.com/old_trains/english.htm |title = The Old Times - History of the Locomotive |access-date = 24 November 2006 |url-status = dead |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20061205042721/http://sapiensman.com/old_trains/english.htm |archive-date = 5 December 2006 }}
{{cite journal |last = Dendy Marshall |first = C.F. |year = 1929 |title = The Rainhill Locomotive Trials of 1829 |journal = Transactions of the Newcomen Society |volume = 9 }}
{{cite journal |first = Steven |last = Dowd |journal = Journal of the International Bond & Share Society |date = May 1999 |title = The Liverpool & Manchester Railway |access-date = 24 November 2006 |url = http://www.n-le-w.co.uk/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=74&Itemid=27 |url-status = dead |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20061008183818/http://www.n-le-w.co.uk/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=74&Itemid=27 |archive-date = 8 October 2006 }}
{{cite journal |journal = Journal of the Monmouthshire Railway Society |date = Summer 1985 |title = The Broad Gauge Story |access-date = 24 November 2006 |url = http://lionels.orpheusweb.co.uk/RailSteam/GWRBroadG/BGHist.html }}

=1830–1922=

{{cite journal |last = McKenna |first = Frank |title = Victorian Railway Workers |journal = History Workshop |date = 1975 |number = 1 |pages = 26–73 |jstor = 4288033 |url = https://www.jstor.org/stable/4288033 }}
{{cite book |last = Ransom |first = P.J.G. |title = The Victorian Railway and How It Evolved |date = July 1989 |publisher = William Heinemann |location = London |isbn = 978-0-434-98083-3 }}
{{cite book |author = Science Museum |title = The Pre-grouping Railways: Their Development and Individual Characters: Part 1 |location = London |publisher = The Stationery Office Books |date = November 1972 |isbn = 978-0-11-290153-2 |url-access = registration |url = https://archive.org/details/pregroupingrailw0000heap }}
{{cite book |first1 = Christine |last1 = Heap |first2 = John |last2 = Van Riemsdijk |title = The Pre-grouping Railways: Their Development and Individual Characters: Part 2 |location = London |publisher = The Stationery Office Books |date = November 1980 |isbn = 978-0-11-290309-3 |url-access = registration |url = https://archive.org/details/pregroupingrailw0000heap }}
{{cite book |first1 = Christine |last1 = Heap |first2 = John |last2 = Van Riemsdijk |title = The Pre-grouping Railways: Their Development and Individual Characters: Part 3 |location = London |publisher = The Stationery Office Books |date = November 1985 |isbn = 978-0-11-290432-8 |url-access = registration |url = https://archive.org/details/pregroupingrailw0000heap }}
{{cite book |author = |year = 1980 |title = British Railways Pre-Grouping Atlas and Gazetteer |edition = 5th |location = Shepperton |publisher = Ian Allan |isbn = 978-0-7110-0320-0 }}

=1923–1947=

{{cite book |title = GWR Engineering Work, 1928-1938 |last = Tourret |first = R. |date = November 2003 |publisher = Tourret Publishing |isbn = 978-0-905878-08-9 }}
{{cite book |title = History of the Great Western Railway Volume Three 1923-48 |last = O.S. Nock |publisher = Ian Allan |year = 1967 |isbn = 978-0-7110-0304-0}}
{{cite book |last = Moody |first = G.T. |title = Southern Electric 1909–1963 |location = London |publisher = Ian Allan Publishing |date = 1963}}
{{cite book |last = Nock |first = O.S. |year = 1982 |title = A History of the LMS. Vol. 1: The First Years, 1923-1930 |publisher = George Allen & Unwin |isbn = 978-0-04-385087-9 |url-access = registration |url = https://archive.org/details/historyoflms0000nock }}
{{cite book |last = Nock |first = O.S. |year = 1982 |title = A History of the LMS. Vol. 2: The Record Breaking 'Thirties, 1931-1939 |publisher = George Allen & Unwin |isbn = 978-0-04-385093-0 |url-access = registration |url = https://archive.org/details/historyoflms0000nock }}
{{cite book |last = White |first = H.P. |year = 1969 |title = Regional History of the Railways of Great Britain: Southern England v. 2 |publisher = David & Charles |isbn = 0-7153-4733-0 }}

=1948–1994=

{{cite book |last = Henshaw |first = David |title = The Great Railway Conspiracy: The Fall and Rise of Britain's Railways Since the 1950s |year = 1994 |edition = 2nd |publisher = Leading Edge Press |location = Hawes, North Yorkshire |isbn = 978-0-948135-48-4 }}
{{cite book |last = Gourvish |first = Terry |year = 2002 |title = British Rail: 1974-97: From Integration to Privatisation |location = Oxford |publisher = Oxford University Press| isbn = 978-0-19-926909-9 }}
{{cite web |url = http://www.ndad.nationalarchives.gov.uk/AH/37/detail.html |title = British Railways Board history |access-date = 25 November 2006 |publisher = The National Archives |url-status = dead |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20061014033802/http://www.ndad.nationalarchives.gov.uk/AH/37/detail.html |archive-date = 14 October 2006}}

=Historiography, restoration and memory=

Beeston, Erin. Spaces of Industrial Heritage: a history of uses, perceptions and the re-making of Liverpool Road Station (University of Manchester, 2020) [https://www.research.manchester.ac.uk/portal/files/194691437/FULL_TEXT.PDF online].
Biddle, Gordon. "British Railway History: Jack Simmons' Last Thoughts." Journal-Railway And Canal Historical Society 34.5 (2003): 324-326 [https://rchs.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2020/12/Journal-185-Jul-2003.pdf#page=54 online].
Boughey, Joseph. "From Transport's Golden Ages to an Age of Tourism: LTC Rolt, Waterway Revival and Railway Preservation in Britain, 1944–54." Journal of Transport History 34.1 (2013): 22-38.
Boyes, Grahame, and Matthew Searle. "A Bibliography of the History of Inland Waterways, Railways and Road Transport in the British Isles, 2007." Interchange 39 (2006): 4-20.
Burman, Peter, and Michael Stratton, eds. Conserving the railway heritage (Taylor & Francis, 1997).
Carter, Ian, ed. British railway enthusiasm (Manchester University Press, 2017).
Mom, Gijs. "What kind of transport history did we get? Half a century of JTH and the future of the field." Journal of Transport History 24.2 (2003): 121–138.
Reeves, Christopher D. "Policy for conservation of heritage railway signal boxes in Great Britain." Historic Environment: Policy & Practice 7.1 (2016): 43-59 [http://nrl.northumbria.ac.uk/id/eprint/25451/1/Reeves%20C%20Conserve%20railway%20signal%20boxes.pdf online].
Strangleman, Tim. "Constructing the Past: Railway History from below or a Study in Nostalgia?." Journal of Transport History 23.2 (2002): 147–158.
Taylor, James. "Business in Pictures: Representations of Railway Enterprise in the Satirical Press in Britain 1845–1870." Past & Present 189.1 (2005): 111–145; cartoons unveiled big business as greedy and corrupt. {{jstor|3600751}}.

Category:Rail transport in Great Britain

Rail GB