hyperinflation in Zimbabwe

On 18 April 1980, the Republic of Zimbabwe was born from the former Republic of Rhodesia. The Rhodesian dollar was replaced by the Zimbabwean dollar at par value. When Zimbabwe gained its independence from the United Kingdom, the newly introduced Zimbabwean dollar was initially more valuable than the United States dollar at the official exchange rate. However, that did not reflect reality because, in terms of purchasing power on the open and black markets, it was less valuable, due primarily to the higher inflation in Zimbabwe.{{Cite news |title=Zimbabwe: A Worthless Currency |url=https://www.economist.com/middle-east-and-africa/2008/07/17/a-worthless-currency |date=17 July 2008 |newspaper=The Economist |access-date=17 April 2010 |url-access=registration |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190105210542/https://www.economist.com/middle-east-and-africa/2008/07/17/a-worthless-currency |archive-date=5 January 2019 |url-status=live}}{{cite news |title=The Death of the Zimbabwe Dollar |url=https://www.globalfinancialdata.com/gfdblog/?p=3098 |publisher=Global Financial Data |access-date=17 April 2010 |date=24 January 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150923041740/https://www.globalfinancialdata.com/gfdblog/?p=3098 |archive-date=23 September 2015 |url-status=dead}} In its early years, Zimbabwe experienced strong growth and development. Wheat production for non-drought years was proportionally higher than previously, and the tobacco industry was thriving. Economic indicators for the country were strong.

From 1991 to 1996, the Zimbabwean ZANU–PF President Robert Mugabe embarked on an Economic Structural Adjustment Programme (ESAP) that had serious negative effects on Zimbabwe's economy. In the late 1990s, the government instituted land reforms in the name of anti-colonialism intended to evict white landowners and place their holdings in the hands of black farmers. However, many of the new farmers had no experience or training in agriculture.{{cite news |title=Whose land? |url=https://www.economist.com/node/13240812 |newspaper=The Economist |url-access=registration |access-date=5 August 2017 |date=5 March 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170914151208/http://www.economist.com/node/13240812 |archive-date=14 September 2017 |url-status=live}} Many farms simply fell into disrepair or were given to Mugabe loyalists. From 1999 to 2009, the country experienced a sharp drop in food production and in all other sectors. The banking sector also collapsed, with farmers unable to obtain loans for capital development. Food output fell 45%, and manufacturing output fell by 29% in 2005, 26% in 2006 and 28% in 2007. Unemployment rose to 80%.{{cite web |url=http://www.netrootsmass.net/wordpress/wp-content/uploads/images/20100428-4-Marshall-Auerback.pdf |author=Marshall Auerbeck |title=Will the US turn into a modern day Weimar Germany? |publisher=Netrootmass.net |access-date=2012-11-19 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120331085413/http://www.netrootsmass.net/wordpress/wp-content/uploads/images/20100428-4-Marshall-Auerback.pdf |archive-date=31 March 2012 |url-status=live}} Life expectancy dropped.{{cite journal|last=Coltart|first=David|title=A Decade of Suffering in Zimbabwe|journal=CATO|year=2008|url=http://www.cato.org/pubs/dpa/html/dpa5/dpa5index.html|access-date=22 April 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100616085757/http://www.cato.org/pubs/dpa/html/dpa5/dpa5index.html|archive-date=16 June 2010|url-status=live}} Much of the nation's middle class fled the country en masse taking much of the nation's capital. The Reserve Bank of Zimbabwe blamed the hyperinflation on economic sanctions imposed by the United States of America, the IMF, and the European Union.{{Cite web |url=http://www.rbz.co.zw/pdfs/2007mid/imp1_7.pdf |title=Archived copy |access-date=24 December 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071107230558/http://www.rbz.co.zw/pdfs/2007mid/imp1_7.pdf |archive-date=7 November 2007 |url-status=live}}[http://zimbabwe-image.blogspot.com/2007/09/illegal-sanctions-to-blame-for-economic.html Illegal Sanctions to Blame for Economic Challenges – Mutasa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161229110313/http://zimbabwe-image.blogspot.com/2007/09/illegal-sanctions-to-blame-for-economic.html |date=29 December 2016}} The Herald (Harare) These sanctions affected the government of Zimbabwe,[http://www.govtrack.us/congress/bills/107/s494/text S. 494 (107th): Zimbabwe Democracy and Economic Recovery Act of 2001] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170831005336/https://www.govtrack.us/congress/bills/107/s494/text |date=31 August 2017}} Sec. 4. Support for Democratic Transition and Economic Recovery. See Section 4C. asset freezes and visa denials targeted at 200 specific Zimbabweans closely tied to the Mugabe regime.{{cite news |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/europe/eu/7252508/EU-renews-Zimbabwe-sanctions.html |title=EU renews Zimbabwe sanctions |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180330015645/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/europe/eu/7252508/EU-renews-Zimbabwe-sanctions.html |archive-date=30 March 2018 |first=Sebastien |last=Berger |newspaper=The Telegraph |date=16 February 2010}} There were also restrictions placed on trade with Zimbabwe, by both individual businesses and the US Treasury Department's Office of Foreign Assets Control.{{cite web |url=http://www.treasury.gov/resource-center/sanctions/Documents/zimb.pdf |publisher=Office of Foreign Asset Control, US Treasury Department |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170125023318/https://www.treasury.gov/resource-center/sanctions/Documents/zimb.pdf |archive-date=25 January 2017 |title=Prohibited Transactions}}

File:Zimbabwe $100 trillion 2009 Obverse.jpg

A monetarist viewSee, for instance, Friedman, Milton. Inflation: Causes and Consequences. New York: Asia Publishing House: "Inflation is always and everywhere a monetary phenomenon." is that a general increase in the prices of things is less a commentary on the worth of those things than on the worth of the money. This has objective and subjective components:

• Objectively, that the money has no firm basis to give it a value.
• Subjectively, that the people holding the money lack confidence in its ability to retain its value.

Crucial to both components is discipline over the creation of additional money. However, the Mugabe government was printing money to finance military involvement in the Democratic Republic of the Congo and, in 2000, in the Second Congo War, including higher salaries for army and government officials. Zimbabwe was under-reporting its war spending to the International Monetary Fund by $22 million a month.{{cite news|title=Mugabe's costly Congo venture|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/611898.stm|access-date=19 April 2011|work=BBC News|first=Justin |last=Pearce|date=25 July 2000|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171225030937/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/611898.stm|archive-date=25 December 2017|url-status=live}}

Another motive for excessive money creation has been self-dealing. Transparency International ranks Zimbabwe's government 157th of 177{{cite web|url=http://www.transparency.org/country#ZWE|title=Transparency International – Country Profiles|publisher=Transparency International|access-date=17 October 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180117204230/https://www.transparency.org/country#ZWE|archive-date=17 January 2018|url-status=live}} in terms of institutionalised corruption.{{cite web|title=Corruption Index|url=http://www.transparency.org/policy_research/surveys_indices/cpi/2010/results|publisher=Transparency International|access-date=19 April 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110724195347/http://www.transparency.org/policy_research/surveys_indices/cpi/2010/results|archive-date=24 July 2011|url-status=live}} The resulting lack of confidence in government undermines confidence in the future and faith in the currency.

Economic missteps by government can create shortages and occupy people with workarounds rather than productivity. Though this harms the economy, it does not necessarily undermine the value of the currency, but may harm confidence in the future. Widespread poverty and violence, including government violence to stifle political opposition, also undermines confidence in the future.{{cite news|title=The Economies of Violence|url=https://www.economist.com/node/18558041|newspaper=The Economist|access-date=17 April 2011|date=14 April 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110417024321/http://www.economist.com/node/18558041|archive-date=17 April 2011|url-status=live}} Land reform lowered agricultural output, especially in tobacco, which accounted for one-third of Zimbabwe's foreign-exchange earnings. Manufacturing and mining also declined. An objective reason was, again, that farms were put in the hands of inexperienced people; and subjectively, that the move undermined the security of property.

Government instability and civic unrest were evident in other areas.{{cite journal|last=Capie|first=Forest|title=Conditions in which very Rapid Hyperinflation has occurred|journal=Carnegie-Rochester Conference Series on Public Policy|year=1986|volume=24|pages=115–168|doi=10.1016/0167-2231(86)90007-2}} Zimbabwean troops, trained by North Korean soldiers, conducted a massacre in the 1980s in the southern provinces of Matabeleland and Midlands, though Mugabe's government cites guerrilla attacks on civilian and state targets. Conflicts between the Ndebele people and Mugabe's government have led to many clashes.{{cite news|last=Latham|first=Brian|title=North Korea Soccer Team May Face Zimbabwe Massacre Protests|url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/2010-05-03/north-korea-s-world-cup-soccer-team-may-face-zimbabwe-massacre-protests.html|access-date=17 April 2011|newspaper=Bloomberg Businessweek|date=3 May 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140413155454/http://www.bloomberg.com/news/2010-05-03/north-korea-s-world-cup-soccer-team-may-face-zimbabwe-massacre-protests.html|archive-date=13 April 2014|url-status=live}} There was also unrest between black people and white people, in which the land reform was a factor. One aspect of this reform sought to discriminate against white people specifically and many were forced by the regime to sign over their businesses to the black majority.{{cite news|title=Bitterness and unease in bankrupt Zimbabwe|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/programmes/from_our_own_correspondent/8551616.stm|access-date=19 April 2011|publisher=BBC News|date=6 March 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171228210905/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/programmes/from_our_own_correspondent/8551616.stm|archive-date=28 December 2017|url-status=live}}

The Reserve Bank of Zimbabwe responded to the dwindling value of the dollar by repeatedly arranging the printing of further banknotes,{{cite web|url=http://www.parapundit.com/archives/003427.html|title=Zimbabwe Inflation Over 900 Percent|date=4 May 2006|website=ParaPundit|access-date=21 June 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160611153652/http://www.parapundit.com/archives/003427.html|archive-date=11 June 2016|url-status=live}}{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/zimbabwe/article/0,,1714393,00.html|title=Africa needs more courage, says Mugabe|last=Meldurm|first=Andrew|date=21 February 2006|newspaper=The Guardian|access-date=21 June 2019|archive-date=15 April 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200415092042/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2006/feb/21/zimbabwe.andrewmeldrum|url-status=live}}{{cite web|url=http://www.zimbabwesituation.com/jun28_2007.html#Z18|title=Zimbabwe: Gono ordered to print Z$1 Trillion for Civil servants and Army|date=28 June 2007|work=Zimbabwe Daily News|via=The Zimbabwe Situation|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070706010708/http://www.zimbabwesituation.com/jun28_2007.html#Z18|archive-date=6 July 2007}}{{cite web|url=http://www.zimbabwesituation.com/jul29_2007.html#Z1|title=Mugabe says will print more money if there isn't enough|date=28 July 2007|agency=Associated Press|work=International Herald Tribune|via=The Zimbabwe Situation|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070929102640/http://www.zimbabwesituation.com/jul29_2007.html#Z1|archive-date=29 September 2007}}{{Cite web|url=http://www.zimbabwesituation.com/aug30b_2007.html#Z13|title=RBZ provides $3 trillion for vote buying|date=30 August 2007|work=The Zimbabwean|via=The Zimbabwe Situation|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070905114039/http://www.zimbabwesituation.com/aug30b_2007.html#Z13|archive-date=5 September 2007}} often at great expense from overseas suppliers. On 1 March 2008, it was reported that documents obtained by The Sunday Times showed that the Munich company Giesecke & Devrient (G&D) was receiving more than €500,000 (£381,562) a week for delivering bank notes equivalent to Z$170 trillion a week.{{cite web|url=http://www.zimbabwesituation.com/mar2a_2008.html#Z1|title=Planeloads of cash prop up Mugabe|last=Lamb|first=Christina|date=2 March 2008|work=The Sunday Times|via=The Zimbabwe Situation|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100102043020/http://www.zimbabwesituation.com/mar2a_2008.html#Z1|archive-date=2 January 2010}}{{cite press release|url=https://www.gi-de.com/en/about_g_d/press/press_releases/Giesecke-%2526-Devrient-halts-deliveries-to-the-Reserve-Bank-of-Zimbabwe-g10756.jsp|title=Giesecke & Devrient halts deliveries to the Reserve Bank of Zimbabwe|date=1 July 2008|agency=Giesecke & Devrient |access-date=21 June 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161119061359/https://www.gi-de.com/en/about_g_d/press/press_releases/Giesecke-%2526-Devrient-halts-deliveries-to-the-Reserve-Bank-of-Zimbabwe-g10756.jsp|archive-date=19 November 2016|url-status=dead}} By late 2008, inflation had risen so high that ATMs for one major bank gave a "data overflow error" and stopped customers' attempt to withdraw money with so many zeros.{{cite news |url=http://www.news.com.au/heraldsun/story/0,21985,24074952-5012751,00.html |title=$100 billion for three eggs |newspaper=The Herald Sun |date=25 July 2008 |access-date=21 June 2019 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120910223539/www.news.com.au/heraldsun/story/0,21985,24074952-5012751,00.html |archive-date=10 September 2012 |url-status=dead }}

Also In Zimbabwe, neither the issuance of banknotes of higher denominations nor proclamation of new currency regimes led holders of the currency to expect that the new money would be more stable than the old. Remedies announced by the government never included a believable basis for monetary stability.{{cite journal |last=Coltart |first=David |title=A Decade of Suffering in Zimbabwe |journal=The Cato Institute |date=24 March 2008 |url=http://www.cato.org/pubs/dpa/html/dpa5/dpa5index.html |access-date=22 April 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100616085757/http://www.cato.org/pubs/dpa/html/dpa5/dpa5index.html |archive-date=16 June 2010 |url-status=live}}{{cite book |last=Krugman |first=Paul F|title=International Economics: Theory and Policy |year=2005 |publisher=Pearson |pages=363–366}} Thus, one reason the currency continued to lose value, causing hyperinflation, is that so many people expected it to.{{cite journal |last=Christiano |first=Lawrence |title=Cagan's Model of Hyperinflation Under Rational Expectations |journal=International Economic Review |date=February 1987 |volume=31 |issue=1}}

Over the course of the five-year span of hyperinflation, the inflation rate fluctuated greatly. At one point, the US Ambassador to Zimbabwe predicted that it would reach 1.5 million percent. In June 2008, the annual rate of price growth was 11.2 million percent. The worst of the inflation occurred in 2008, leading to the abandonment of the currency. The peak month of hyperinflation occurred in mid-November 2008 with a rate estimated at 79,600,000,000% per month, with the year-over-year inflation rate reaching an astounding 89.7 sextillion percent. This resulted in {{US$|1}} becoming equivalent to Z$2,621,984,228.{{cite web |url=http://allafrica.com/stories/200810090256.html |title=Zimbabwe: Inflation Soars to 231 Million Percent |publisher=allAfrica.com / The Herald (Harare) |author=Martin Kadzere |date=9 October 2008 |access-date=2008-10-10 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081012214518/http://allafrica.com/stories/200810090256.html |archive-date=12 October 2008 |url-status=live }}[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/7660569.stm Zimbabwe inflation hits new high] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090514123525/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/7660569.stm |date=14 May 2009 }} BBC News, 9 October 2009

On 13 July 2007, the Zimbabwean government said that it had temporarily stopped publishing inflation figures, a move that observers said was meant to draw attention away from "runaway inflation which has come to symbolise the country's unprecedented economic meltdown".{{cite web|url=http://www.zimbabwesituation.com/jul15_2007.html#Z1|title=Harare suspends release of inflation data|last=Chizhanje|first=Hendricks|date=14 July 2007|work=Zimbabwe Online|via=The Zimbabwe Situation|access-date=21 June 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121008023019/http://zimbabwesituation.com/jul15_2007.html#Z1|archive-date=8 October 2012|url-status=live}}{{cite web|url=http://www.zimbabwesituation.com/may24a_2008.html#Z26|title=Inflation hits one million percent as prices continue to skyrocket|last=Sibanda|first=Tichaona|date=21 May 2008|work=SW Radio Africa|via=The Zimbabwe Situation|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080526114101/http://www.zimbabwesituation.com/may24a_2008.html#Z26|archive-date=26 May 2008}} In 2008, the inflation rate accelerated dramatically, from a rate in January of over 100,000%{{cite web|url=http://www.zimbabwesituation.com/feb21_2008.html#Z1|title=Zimbabwe annual inflation over 100,000 per cent|date=21 February 2008|work=The Sydney Morning Herald|via=The Zimbabwe Situation|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080512040358/http://www.zimbabwesituation.com/feb21_2008.html#Z1|archive-date=12 May 2008}} to an estimated rate of over 1,000,000% by May,{{cite web|url=http://www.zimbabwesituation.com/may17_2008.html#Z1|title=Hits 355 000%|date=15 May 2008|work=Zimbabwe Independent|via=The Zimbabwe Situation|access-date=21 June 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140407093113/http://www.zimbabwesituation.com/may17_2008.html#Z1|archive-date=7 April 2014|url-status=live}}{{cite web|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/business/7244769.stm|title=Zimbabwe inflation spirals again|date=14 February 2008|publisher=BBC News|access-date=21 June 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090111164611/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/business/7244769.stm|archive-date=11 January 2009|url-status=live}} and nearly 250,000,000% in July.{{cite web|url=http://www.zimbabwesituation.com/oct9b_2008.html#Z1|title=Inflation soars to 231 million percent|last=Kadzere|first=Martin|date=9 October 2008|work=The Herald|via=The Zimbabwe Situation|access-date=7 January 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090218061746/http://www.zimbabwesituation.com/oct9b_2008.html#Z1|archive-date=18 February 2009|url-status=live}} As predicted by the quantity theory of money, this hyperinflation was linked to the Reserve Bank of Zimbabwe increasing the money supply.{{Cite journal |last1=Maune |first1=Alexander |last2=Matanda |first2=Ephraim |last3=Mundonde |first3=Justice |date=2020-07-13 |title=Is Money Supply the Cause of Inflation in Zimbabwe? An Empirical Examination |url=https://dj.univ-danubius.ro/index.php/AUDOE/article/view/372 |journal=Acta Universitatis Danubius. Œconomica |language=en-US |volume=16 |issue=3 |issn=2067-340X}}

As hyperinflation accelerated, the value of the Zimbabwean dollar declined rapidly against other currencies, yet official exchange rates published by the Reserve Bank of Zimbabwe were infrequently updated; this made it impossible to tell from an official source how much the Zimbabwe dollar was really worth against other currencies on a particular day, which in turn disrupted international business transactions involving Zimbabwe dollars. Staff from WM/Reuters devised an indirect means of measurement that was termed the Old Mutual Implied Rate (OMIR).{{cite news|title=Our mutual friend|url=https://www.economist.com/node/9009086|newspaper=The Economist|publisher=The Economist Newspaper Limited|access-date=18 June 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150619000436/http://www.economist.com/node/9009086|archive-date=19 June 2015|url-status=live}} This took the daily price of Old Mutual shares traded in the London and Harare stock markets and used it to derive a national daily exchange rate between the Zimbabwe dollar and the pound.{{cite journal|last1=Hanke|first1=Steve H.|last2=Kwok|first2=Alex|title=On the Measurement of Zimbabwe's Hyperinflation|journal=Cato Institute Journal|date=May 2009|page=359|url=http://object.cato.org/sites/cato.org/files/serials/files/cato-journal/2009/5/cj29n2-8.pdf|access-date=18 June 2015|publisher=Cato Institute|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190907191636/https://object.cato.org/sites/cato.org/files/serials/files/cato-journal/2009/5/cj29n2-8.pdf|archive-date=7 September 2019|url-status=live}}{{cite book|last1=Bauer|first1=Joerg|title=The Flight of the Phoenix: Investing in Zimbabwe's Rise from the Ashes during the Global Debt Crisis|date=11 July 2013|publisher=CreateSpace|isbn=978-1490908632|page=281|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6egQAAAAQBAJ&pg=SL8-PA281|access-date=18 June 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150619005625/https://books.google.de/books?id=6egQAAAAQBAJ&pg=SL8-PA281|archive-date=19 June 2015|url-status=live}} Shares had much looser capital controls than the Zimbabwean banking system, so they were used as a vehicle for moving capital between currencies by buying stock in either London or Harare and then selling in the other location.

The Old Mutual Implied rate was a widely adopted benchmark rate for unofficial currency exchange until intervention by the Reserve Bank of Zimbabwe in May 2008 prohibited the transfer out of the country of shares in Old Mutual, ABC and Kingdom Meikles Africa, thereby blocking their fungibility.

File:Zimbabwe dollar notes 1 to 100 trillion 2007 08 Front.jpg gained a PhD in Strategic Management from the Atlantic International University.]]

In 2007, the government declared inflation illegal. Anyone who raised the prices for goods and services was subject to arrest. This amounted to a price freeze, which is usually ineffective in halting inflation.{{cite news | url=https://www.nytimes.com/2007/02/07/world/africa/07zimbabwe.html?ex=1328504400&en=5709ec03b6b62b0d&ei=5090&partner=rssuserland&emc=rss | work=The New York Times | title=As Inflation Soars, Zimbabwe Economy Plunges | first=Michael | last=Wines | date=7 February 2007 | access-date=4 May 2010 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100215090109/http://www.nytimes.com/2007/02/07/world/africa/07zimbabwe.html?ex=1328504400&en=5709ec03b6b62b0d&ei=5090&partner=rssuserland&emc=rss | archive-date=15 February 2010 | url-status=live }} Officials arrested numerous corporate executives for changing their prices.{{cite news | url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/6199516.stm | publisher=BBC News | title=Zimbabwe jail over bread prices | date=1 December 2006 | access-date=4 May 2010 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090929212455/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/6199516.stm | archive-date=29 September 2009 | url-status=live }}File:US one-dollar banknotes, collected in Zimbabwe in 2015. Used as local currency. On display at the British Museum in London.jpg

In December 2008, the Reserve Bank of Zimbabwe licensed around 1,000 shops to deal in foreign currency.[https://news.yahoo.com/s/afp/20090101/bs_afp/zimbabweeconomycurrency?iref=mpstoryview Zimbabwe economy virtually foreign exchange-based: media] Yahoo News, 1 January 2009[http://allafrica.com/stories/200901050270.html?iref=mpstoryview Zimbabwe: Econet Subscribers Caught Unawares] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121007082215/http://allafrica.com/stories/200901050270.html?iref=mpstoryview |date=7 October 2012 }} allAfrica.com, 3 January 2009 Citizens had increasingly been using foreign currency in daily exchanges, as local shops stated the prices of few goods in Zimbabwe dollars, because they needed foreign currency to import foreign goods. Many businesses and street vendors continued to do so without getting the license.{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/7841562.stm|title=Harare diary: 'Hope has died'|publisher=BBC News|date=21 January 2009|access-date=30 January 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090124121024/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/7841562.stm|archive-date=24 January 2009|url-status=live}}

In January 2009, acting Finance Minister Patrick Chinamasa lifted the restriction to use only Zimbabwean dollars.{{citation needed|date=September 2014}} This acknowledged what many were already doing. Citizens were allowed to use the US dollar, the euro, and the South African rand. However, teachers and civil servants were still being paid in Zimbabwean dollars. Even though their salaries were in the trillions per month, this amounted to around US$1, or half the daily bus fare.{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/7859033.stm|title=Zimbabwe abandons its currency|date=29 January 2009|publisher=BBC News|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111109024154/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/7859033.stm|archive-date=9 November 2011|url-status=live}} The government also used a restriction on bank withdrawals to try to limit the amount of money that was in circulation. It limited cash withdrawals to $Z500,000, around {{US$|0.25}}.[http://www.cnn.com/2008/WORLD/africa/12/06/zimbabwe.currency/index.html?iref=mpstoryview Hyperinflation forces Zimbabwe to print $200 million notes.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090424020939/http://www.cnn.com/2008/WORLD/africa/12/06/zimbabwe.currency/index.html?iref=mpstoryview |date=24 April 2009 }} (6 December 2008). CNN. Retrieved 6 December 2008.

File:ZWDvsUSDchart.svg exchange rates 1 Jan 2001 to 2 Feb 2009. Note the logarithmic scale.]]

Prices in shops and restaurants were still quoted in Zimbabwean dollars, but were adjusted several times a day.{{Cite web |date=2018-11-27 |title=When Is a Dollar Not a Dollar? Inside Zimbabwe’s Labyrinth of Currencies |url=https://globalpressjournal.com/africa/zimbabwe/dollar-not-dollar-inside-zimbabwes-labyrinth-currencies/ |access-date=2025-04-25 |website=Global Press Journal |language=en-US}} Any Zimbabwean dollars acquired needed to be exchanged for foreign currency on the parallel market immediately,{{cite web|last=Van Gelder|first=Elles|title=Zimbabwe; Black Market Thriving|url=http://www.africanews.com/site/list_messages/14694|access-date=15 April 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120329061420/http://www.africanews.com/site/list_messages/14694|archive-date=29 March 2012|url-status=dead}} or the holder would suffer a significant loss of value. For example, mini-bus drivers were required by law to only accept payment from passengers in Zimbabwean dollars, but at increasing rates throughout the day: the evening commute was therefore the highest-priced ride of the day, with the next morning's price higher still. A driver might have to exchange money three times a day, not in banks but in back office rooms and in parking lots.{{Cite web |date=2017-07-07 |title=Street Traders Find Currency Exchange Profitable as Many Eschew Banks |url=https://globalpressjournal.com/africa/zimbabwe/street-traders-find-currency-exchange-profitable-many-eschew-banks/ |access-date=2025-04-25 |website=Global Press Journal |language=en-US}}

Such business venues constituted a black market, an arena explicitly outside the law. Transactors could evade the price freezes and the mandate to use Zimbabwean dollars. The black market served the demand for daily goods such as soap and bread, as grocery stores operating within the law no longer sold items whose prices were strictly controlled, or charged customers more if they were paying in Zimbabwean dollars.{{cite news|title=Zimbabwe; A worthless currency|url=https://www.economist.com/node/11751346?story_id=E1_TTSVTPQG|newspaper=The Economist|access-date=15 April 2011|date=17 July 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121023060106/http://www.economist.com/node/11751346?story_id=E1_TTSVTPQG|archive-date=23 October 2012|url-status=live}} At one point, a loaf of bread was {{val|p=Z$|550000000|fmt=commas}} in the regular market, when bread was even available; apart from a trip to another country, the black market was the only option for almost all goods at up to {{val|p=Z$|10000000000|fmt=commas}} for a loaf of bread.{{cite news|last=McLaughlin|first=Elliot|title=Harare Woman; If you talk too much ... they hunt you down.|url=http://www.cnn.com/2008/WORLD/africa/06/25/zimbabwe.voices/index.html?iref=allsearch|access-date=25 November 2017|publisher=CNN|date=25 June 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171201050736/http://www.cnn.com/2008/WORLD/africa/06/25/zimbabwe.voices/index.html?iref=allsearch|archive-date=1 December 2017|url-status=live}} In May 2022, it was reported that the devaluation of the Zimbabwe dollar's black market exchange rate, which is used in most financial transactions in the economy, has been driving up inflation in the country.{{Cite news |date=2022-05-08 |title=Zimbabwe suspends bank lending in bid to arrest currency decline |language=en |work=Reuters |url=https://www.reuters.com/world/africa/zimbabwe-suspends-bank-lending-bid-arrest-currency-decline-2022-05-07/ |access-date=2022-05-08 |archive-date=8 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220508150017/https://www.reuters.com/world/africa/zimbabwe-suspends-bank-lending-bid-arrest-currency-decline-2022-05-07/ |url-status=live }}

At independence in 1980, the Zimbabwean dollar became the common currency. Originally, the paper notes were in denominations of {{val|p=Z$|2}}, 5, 10 and 20, and coins in denominations of 1, 5, 10, 20, 50 cents and {{val|p=Z$|1}}. As larger bills were needed to pay for menial amounts, the Reserve Bank of Zimbabwe planned to print and circulate denominations of up to {{val|p=Z$|10}}, 20, 50, and 100 trillion.{{cite news|title=Zimbabwe Rolls Out Z$100tr Note|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/7832601.stm|access-date=13 April 2011|publisher=BBC|date=16 January 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150914225711/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/7832601.stm|archive-date=14 September 2015|url-status=live}} Announcements of new denominations were increasingly frequent; the {{val|p=Z$|200000000}} bill was announced just days after the printing of the {{val|p=Z$|100000000}} bills.

The government did not attempt to fight inflation with fiscal and monetary policy. By 2003, there were growing shortages.{{Cite web|url=http://www.radionetherlandsarchives.org/searching-for-fuel-and-other-tales-from-zimbabwe/|title=Searching for fuel and other tales from Zimbabwe|date=1 October 2003|access-date=18 December 2018|archive-date=5 August 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200805075041/http://www.radionetherlandsarchives.org/searching-for-fuel-and-other-tales-from-zimbabwe/|url-status=live}} In 2006, before hyperinflation reached its peak, the bank announced it would print larger bills to buy foreign currencies. The Reserve Bank printed {{val|p=Z$|21 |u=trillion}} dollars to pay off debts owed to the International Monetary Fund.{{Cite news|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/1542576/1600pc-inflation-makes-new-notes-useless.html|title=1,600pc inflation makes new notes useless|last=Thornycroft|first=Peta|date=13 February 2007|work=The Telegraph|access-date=3 June 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110515094859/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/1542576/1600pc-inflation-makes-new-notes-useless.html|archive-date=15 May 2011|url-status=live}}

On three occasions, the Reserve Bank of Zimbabwe redenominated its currency. First, in August 2006, the Reserve Bank recalled notes in exchange for new notes with three zeros slashed from the currency.{{cite news |url=https://news.yahoo.com/s/afp/20060806/ts_afp/zimbabweeconomybankmoneyinflation |title=Zimbabwe's 'cosmetic' cash reforms rapped |date=6 August 2006 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060827074341/http://news.yahoo.com/s/afp/20060806/ts_afp/zimbabweeconomybankmoneyinflation |archive-date=27 August 2006}} In July 2008, the governor of the Reserve Bank of Zimbabwe, Gideon Gono, announced a new Zimbabwean dollar, this time with 10 zeros removed. The {{val|p=Z$|10 |u=billion}} would be redenominated to be {{val|p=Z$|1}}.{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/7532702.stm|title=Zimbabwe introduces new currency|publisher=BBC|date=30 July 2008|access-date=2008-07-30|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081003143001/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/7532702.stm|archive-date=3 October 2008|url-status=live}} This move was not just to slow inflation but also to make computations more manageable.{{cite news|title=Zimbabwe Abandons Its Currency|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/7859033.stm|access-date=15 April 2011|publisher=BBC|date=29 January 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110905024625/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/7859033.stm|archive-date=5 September 2011|url-status=live}}

A third redenomination, producing the "fourth Zimbabwe dollar", occurred in February 2009, and dropped 12 more zeros from the currency. It was thus worth 10 trillion trillion original dollars, as the three redenominations together reduced the value of an original dollar by {{nowrap|1=10³ × 10¹⁰ × 10¹² = 10²⁵.}} Computers could not handle the amount of zeros such that other forms of money had to be used to act as normal money (bearer's cheques). Banks had to input a lesser amount on the deposit or withdrawal slip then would put a covering statement, such as "multiply by {{val|1000000}} or add 10 zeros to your amount to get the real value". The same was true for businesses as well and all traders.{{Citation needed|date=January 2023}}

A solution effectively adopted by Zimbabwe was to adopt some foreign currency as official. To facilitate commerce, it is less important which currency is adopted than that the government standardise on a single currency. The US dollar, the euro, and the South African rand were candidates; the US dollar had the most credibility and was the most widely traded within Zimbabwe.{{cite journal|last=Hanke|first=Steve|title=Zimbabwe; From Hyperinflation to Growth|journal=The Cato Institute|date=June 2008|volume=6|pages=1–36|url=http://www.cato.org/pubs/dpa/html/dpa6/dpa6index.html|access-date=7 April 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110405193836/http://www.cato.org/pubs/dpa/html/dpa6/dpa6index.html|archive-date=5 April 2011|url-status=live}} Zimbabwe could have joined the nearby nations of Lesotho, Namibia, South Africa, and Eswatini, which constitute the Common Monetary Area, or "Rand Zone" by formally deciding to use the rand to promote trade and stability.{{cite journal|last=Grandes|first=Martin|title=Macroeconomic Convergence: In Southern Africa: The Rand Zone Experience|journal=OECD Development Center|date=December 2003|volume=Working Paper 231|url=http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/52/15/23381692.pdf|access-date=15 April 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111027061646/http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/52/15/23381692.pdf|archive-date=27 October 2011|url-status=live}}

In 2009, the government abandoned printing Zimbabwean dollars entirely. This implicitly solved the chronic problem of lack of confidence in the Zimbabwean dollar, and compelled people to use the foreign currency of their choice. Since then Zimbabwe has used a combination of foreign currencies, mostly US dollars.

In 2014, the Reserve Bank of Zimbabwe unveiled "convertible" coins in denominations of {{US$|0.01}} through {{US$|0.50}} (Zimbabwean bond coins). The bank said that 80% of Zimbabweans use the US dollar, and said the local lack of coins induces retailers to round prices up to the next higher dollar. The coins extend the use of the dollar as a de facto currency, and indeed the National Bank repeatedly assured that it does not intend to bring back a national currency.{{cite magazine

|url=http://source.co.zw/2014/12/rbz-issues-centavo-coins-says-bringing-back-zimbabwe-dollar-suicidal/

|title=RBZ issues 'centavo' coins, says bringing back Zimbabwe dollar suicidal

|author=Chipo Musoko

|magazine=The Source

|date=2014-12-05

|access-date=2014-12-08

|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150314214108/http://source.co.zw/2014/12/rbz-issues-centavo-coins-says-bringing-back-zimbabwe-dollar-suicidal/

|archive-date=14 March 2015

|url-status=dead

}} As of May 2016 the liquidity of the USD had rapidly decreased and John Mangudya, the governor of the Reserve Bank of Zimbabwe, said Zimbabwe would print a new bond note, which he said would be at par with the American dollar.{{Cite web|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-36210680|title=Zimbabwe to print own version of US dollar|date=2016-05-05|publisher=BBC News|access-date=2016-07-10|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180916043048/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-36210680|archive-date=16 September 2018|url-status=live}} This was to be done within the following two months. Some citizens disputed this, saying the 2008 error was now returning and they would not accept the bond notes.

The July 2018 inflation rate in Zimbabwe was officially 4.3% (up from 2.9% in June).{{Cite web|url=https://bulawayo24.com/index-id-news-sc-national-byo-143415.html|title=Zimbabwe inflation reaches record high since 2012|website=Bulawayo24 News|access-date=22 August 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180826065305/https://bulawayo24.com/index-id-news-sc-national-byo-143415.html|archive-date=26 August 2018|url-status=live}}{{Cite web|url=https://allafrica.com/stories/201808170031.html|title=Zimbabwe: Inflation Rises to 4,29%|first=Tawanda|last=Musarurwa|date=17 August 2018|via=AllAfrica|access-date=22 August 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180822050311/https://allafrica.com/stories/201808170031.html|archive-date=22 August 2018|url-status=live}} In June 2019, the official inflation rate was 97.9%. In 2022, it was reported that the inflation rate quickened to 96.4% in April, from 60.6% in January. Zimbabwe's government ordered banks to stop lending with immediate effect. This move was designed to stop speculation against the Zimbabwean dollar and was part of a raft of measures to arrest its rapid devaluation on the black market. Other measures include an increased tax on forex bank transfers, higher levies on forex cash withdrawals above $1,000, and the payment of taxes which used to be charged in forex in local currency, according to Mnangagwa.

In June 2015, the Reserve Bank of Zimbabwe said it would begin a process to "demonetize" (i.e., to officially value a fiat currency at zero). The plan was to have completed the switch to the US dollar by the end of September 2015. In December 2015, Patrick Chinamasa, the Zimbabwe Minister of Finance, said they would make the Chinese yuan their main reserve currency and legal tender after China cancelled US$40 million in debts.{{cite news|url=https://www.fxstreet.com/news/7efe6912-f487-45b8-a6db-92885c9bc100|title=Zimbabwe decides to use the Chinese Yuan as its main currency|last1=Pandit|first1=Srimoyee|date=28 December 2015|work=FX Street|access-date=10 February 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180715151943/https://www.fxstreet.com/news/7efe6912-f487-45b8-a6db-92885c9bc100|archive-date=15 July 2018|url-status=live}} However, this was denied by the Reserve Bank of Zimbabwe in January 2016.{{cite news|title=Chinese Yuan as Zimbabwe's Currency: Govt Rebuts|url=http://www.zimeye.net/chinese-yuan-as-zimbabwes-currency-govt-rebuts/|access-date=25 February 2016|publisher=Zimeye|date=23 January 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303111955/http://www.zimeye.net/chinese-yuan-as-zimbabwes-currency-govt-rebuts/|archive-date=3 March 2016|url-status=live}} In June 2016, nine currencies were legal tender in Zimbabwe but it was estimated 90% of transactions were in US dollars and 5% in Rand.{{Cite news|url=http://www.newzimbabwe.com/business-29924-US+dollar+shortage+highlights+Zim%E2%80%99s+woes/business.aspx|title=Dollar shortage highlights Zimbabwe's woes|last=Hawkins|first=Tony|date=27 June 2016|work=New Zimbabwe|access-date=10 July 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160629191528/http://www.newzimbabwe.com/business-29924-US+dollar+shortage+highlights+Zim%E2%80%99s+woes/business.aspx|archive-date=29 June 2016|url-status=live}}

In April 2023, the government announced the introduction of digital currencies backed by gold reserves. The digital money will be allowed to be transferred for people and business as a form of payment via e-gold wallets or e-gold cards.{{cite news |last1=Mutsaka |first1=Farai |title=Zimbabwe plans to launch digital currency backed by gold |url=https://apnews.com/article/digital-currency-zimbabwe-inflation-gold-52faa7783c895f10d0da168e9cfd620b |access-date=4 May 2023 |work=AP NEWS |date=28 April 2023}}

In 2019, the new Finance Minister, Mthuli Ncube, presided over the conversion from foreign currency to a new Zimbabwean currency,{{Cite web |date=2019-11-08 |title=The Alchemists: Concocting Currency in Search of Prosperity |url=https://globalpressjournal.com/africa/zimbabwe/alchemists-concocting-currency-search-prosperity/ |access-date=2025-04-25 |website=Global Press Journal |language=en-US}} and the resultant return of hyperinflation.{{Cite news|last=Mordasov |first=Pavel |date=9 October 2019 |title=The Return of Hyperinflation in Zimbabwe |newspaper=Mises Wire |publisher=Mises Institute |location=Auburn, Alabama |url=https://mises.org/wire/return-hyperinflation-zimbabwe |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191011051941/https://mises.org/wire/return-hyperinflation-zimbabwe |archive-date=11 October 2019 |url-status=live }}{{Cite news|last=Amin |first=Haslinda |title=At More Than 500%, Zimbabwe's Ncube Sees Inflation Stabilizing |date=22 January 2020 |publisher=Bloomberg News |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2020-01-22/at-more-than-500-zimbabwe-s-ncube-sees-inflation-stabilizing |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200226133208/https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2020-01-22/at-more-than-500-zimbabwe-s-ncube-sees-inflation-stabilizing |archive-date=26 February 2020 |url-status=live }}{{Cite news|last=Vinga |first=Alois |date=26 January 2020 |title=Ncube scorned for Davos claims Zim economy recovering |newspaper=New Zimbabwe |url=https://www.newzimbabwe.com/ncube-scorned-for-davos-claims-zim-economy-recovering/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200126101330/https://www.newzimbabwe.com/ncube-scorned-for-davos-claims-zim-economy-recovering/ |archive-date=26 January 2020 |url-status=live }} It was estimated that inflation reached 500% during 2019.{{Cite news|agency=Associated Press |date=10 October 2019 |title=Zimbabwe struggles with hyperinflation |newspaper=New York Post |url=https://nypost.com/2019/10/10/zimbabwe-struggles-with-hyperinflation-its-a-nightmare/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191216100437/https://nypost.com/2019/10/10/zimbabwe-struggles-with-hyperinflation-its-a-nightmare/ |archive-date=16 December 2019 |url-status=live }} According to the website Trading Economics, the annual inflation rate in Zimbabwe was 540% in February 2020. The annual inflation rate had risen to 676% in March 2020, and there was a bleak economic outlook due to the effects of a drought in 2019 and the COVID-19 pandemic.{{cite web |last1=Sguazzin |first1=Antony |title=Zimbabwe's Currency Plans Upended as It Fights on Two Fronts |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2020-04-20/zimbabwe-s-currency-plans-upended-as-it-fights-on-two-fronts |publisher=Bloomberg L.P. |access-date=4 May 2020 |date=20 April 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200506024612/https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2020-04-20/zimbabwe-s-currency-plans-upended-as-it-fights-on-two-fronts |archive-date=6 May 2020 |url-status=live }} In 2022, the country experienced another period of high inflation, which jumped to 131.7% in May from 96.4% in April.{{Cite web |agency=Agence France-Presse |date=25 May 2022 |title=Zimbabwe's inflation soars to 131.7% |url=https://ewn.co.za/2022/05/25/zimbabwe-s-inflation-soars-to-131-7 |access-date=2022-05-28 |website=ewn.co.za |language=en |archive-date=28 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220528113929/https://ewn.co.za/2022/05/25/zimbabwe-s-inflation-soars-to-131-7 |url-status=live }} Since February 2022, Zimbabwe's inflation rate shot up from 66% to more than 130% in May 2022. By June 2022, it surged again to 191%.{{Cite web |last=AfricaNews |date=2022-06-26 |title=Zimbabwe's annual inflation surges to 191% in June |url=https://www.africanews.com/2022/06/26/zimbabwes-annual-inflation-surges-to-191-in-june/ |access-date=2023-04-03 |website=Africanews |language=en}} The same month, Finance minister Mthuli Ncube said the GVT would not hesitate to intervene to cushion against price increases and exchange rate volatility.{{Cite web |author=Staff Writer |last2=Zimbabwean |first2=The |title=Zimbabwe's annual inflation surges to 191% in June |url=https://www.zawya.com/en/economy/africa/zimbabwes-annual-inflation-surges-to-191-in-june-h16q0mhe |access-date=2023-04-03 |website=www.zawya.com |language=en}} In April 2024, a new currency was announced, the Zimbabwean ZiG. {{cite web |last1=Mutsaka |first1=Farai |title=Zimbabwe's ZiG is the world's newest currency and its latest attempt to resolve a money crisis |url=https://finance.yahoo.com/news/zimbabwes-zig-worlds-newest-currency-144959244.html?guccounter=1 |website=Yahoo Finance |date=30 April 2024 |publisher=Associated Press |access-date=11 July 2024}}

{{Reflist}}

• {{cite book|last=Allen|first=Larry|title=The Encyclopedia of Money|year=2009|publisher=ABC-CLIO|edition=2nd|place=Santa Barbara, CA|pages=228–229|isbn=978-1598842517}}

{{Portal|Current events}}

• [https://mises.org/library/hyperinflation-zimbabwe The Hyperinflation in Zimbabwe], Mises Institute
• [https://mises.org/wire/return-hyperinflation-zimbabwe The Return of Hyperinflation in Zimbabwe], Mises Institute

{{Economy of Zimbabwe}}

{{Financial crises}}

Category:Man-made disasters in Zimbabwe

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