knowledge sharing

Although knowledge is commonly treated as an object, Dave Snowden has argued it is more appropriate to teach it as both a flow and a thing.{{cite journal | title = Complex acts of knowing: paradox and descriptive self-awareness| last = Snowden | first = D. | year = 2002| journal = Journal of Knowledge Management | pages = 100–111 | volume = 6 | issue = 2 | doi = 10.1108/13673270210424639| citeseerx = 10.1.1.126.4537}} Knowledge as a flow can be related to the concept of tacit knowledge.{{cite book | title = Personal Knowledge: Towards a Post-Critical Philosophy | last = Polanyi | first = M. | year = 2003 | orig-year = 1958 | publisher = CRC Press | isbn = 978-0-203-44215-9 | pages = 428}}{{cite journal | title = A dynamic theory of organizational knowledge creation | last = Nonaka | first = I. | year = 1994 | journal = Organization Science | pages = 14–37 | volume = 5 | issue = 1 | doi = 10.1287/orsc.5.1.14| jstor = 2635068| s2cid = 17219859 | hdl = 10983/15625 | hdl-access = free }}{{cite journal | title = Tacit Knowledge and Knowledge Conversion: Controversy and Advancement in Organizational Knowledge Creation Theory | last = Nonaka | first = I. | year = 2009 | journal = Organization Science | volume = 20 | issue = 3 | url = http://zonecours.hec.ca/documents/H2010-1-2241390.S2-TacitKnowledgeandKnowledgeConversion-ControversyandAdvancementinOrganizationalKnowledgeCreation.pdf | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20101122050857/http://zonecours.hec.ca/documents/H2010-1-2241390.S2-TacitKnowledgeandKnowledgeConversion-ControversyandAdvancementinOrganizationalKnowledgeCreation.pdf | url-status = dead | archive-date = 2010-11-22 | pages = 635–652 | doi = 10.1287/orsc.1080.0412}} While the difficulty of sharing knowledge is in transferring knowledge from one entity to another,{{cite journal | title = Knowledge Transfer: A Basis for Competitive Advantage in Firms | year = 2000 | journal = Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes | pages = 150–169 | volume = 82 | issue = 1 | doi = 10.1006/obhd.2000.2893 | last1 = Argote | first1 =L. |author1-link= Linda Argote | last2 =Ingram | first2 =P. | s2cid = 7893124 }}{{cite journal | title = The Transfer of Western Management to China: Context, Content and Constraints | year = 1998 | author = Fan, Y. | journal = Management Learning | pages = 201–221 | volume = 29 | issue = 2 | doi = 10.1177/1350507698292005 | citeseerx = 10.1.1.427.1879| s2cid = 31172513 }} it may prove profitable for organizations to acknowledge the difficulties of knowledge transfer and adopt new knowledge management strategies accordingly.

Knowledge can be shared in different ways and levels. The following segmentation sheds light on the essence of sharing.

Explicit knowledge sharing occurs when explicit knowledge is made available to be shared between entities. Explicit knowledge sharing can happen successfully when the following criteria are met:

• Articulation: the knowledge provider can describe the information.
• Awareness: the recipient must be aware that knowledge is available.
• Access: the knowledge recipient can access the knowledge provider.
• Guidance: the body of knowledge must be defined and differentiated into different topics or domains so as to avoid information overload, and to provide easy access to appropriate material. Knowledge managers are often considered key figures in the creation of an effective knowledge sharing system.{{cite book|last1=Prusak|first1=Lawrence|last2=Davenport|first2=Thomas H.|title=Working Knowledge: How Organizations Manage What They Know, 2nd Edition|url=https://archive.org/details/workingknowledge00thom_1|url-access=registration|year=2000|publisher=Harvard Business School Press|location=Cambridge, MA|isbn=978-1-57851-301-7}}
• Completeness: the holistic approach to knowledge sharing in the form of both centrally managed and self-published knowledge.{{Citation needed|date=November 2020}}

Tacit knowledge sharing occurs through different types of socialization. Although tacit knowledge is difficult to identify and codify, relevant factors that influence tacit knowledge sharing include:

• Informal networks such as daily interactions between people within a defined environment (work, school, home, etc.). These networks span hierarchies and functions.
• The provision of space where people can engage in unstructured or unmonitored discussions, thereby fostering informal networks.
• Unstructured, less-structured or experimental work practices that encourage creative problem solving, and the development of social networks.
• An organizational culture which is based on trust. This encourages employees to share their knowledge.{{Cite journal|last1=Curado|first1=Carla|last2=Vieira|first2=Sílvia|date=2019-09-02|title=Trust, knowledge sharing and organizational commitment in SMEs|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/pr-03-2018-0094|journal=Personnel Review|volume=48|issue=6|pages=1449–1468|doi=10.1108/pr-03-2018-0094|s2cid=197749637|issn=0048-3486}}
• Employees' strong organizational commitment and loyalty to their employers supports tacit knowledge sharing.{{Cite journal|last=Hislop|first=Donald|date=April 2003|title=Linking human resource management and knowledge management via commitment: A review and research agenda|url=https://www.emerald.com/insight/content/doi/10.1108/01425450310456479/full/html|journal=Employee Relations|language=en|volume=25|issue=2|pages=182–202|doi=10.1108/01425450310456479|issn=0142-5455}}

Embedded knowledge sharing occurs when knowledge is shared through clearly delineated products, processes, routines, etc. This knowledge can be shared in different ways, such as:

• Scenario planning and debriefing: providing a structured space to create possible scenarios, followed by a discussion of what happened, and how it could have been different.{{cite web|last1=Serban|last2=Luan|first1=Andreea M.|first2=Jing (2002)|title=Corporate Strategy Model: Scenario Planning|url=http://www.uky.edu/~gmswan3/575/Serban_and_Luan_2002.pdf|publisher=University of Kentucky|access-date=17 April 2013}}
• Management training.
• Knowledge transfer: deliberately integrating systems, processes, routines, etc., to combine and share relevant knowledge.

There are several methods both formal and informal that have claims to enable knowledge sharing in organisations. These include, but are not limited to:

• Communities of practice: a group of people who share a craft or a profession; usually takes the form of cross organizational or inter-organizational workgroups, in physical, virtual or blended formsWenger, E. C., & Snyder, W. M. (2000). Communities of practice: The organizational frontier. Harvard business review, 78(1), 139–146.
• Communities of interest: Informal and voluntary gathering of individuals discussing on a regular basis, in many cases through defined digital channelFischer, G. (2001, August). Communities of interest: Learning through the interaction of multiple knowledge systems. In Proceedings of the 24th IRIS Conference (Vol. 1, pp. 1–13). Department of Information Science, Bergen.
• Workgroups: Task-oriented groups that may include project teams or employees from various departments, working and sharing knowledge together towards a specific goal such as product development or productionKozlowski, S. W., & Bell, B. S. (2012). Work groups and teams in organizations. Handbook of Psychology, Second Edition, 12.
• Knowledge cafe: a methodology to conduct knowledge sharing sessions using a combination of a large assembly and of small discussion groups of 3–5 persons, usually around small tablesGurteen, D. (2015). Knowledge cafe. Inside Knowledge, 13(3), 8–13.
• Lessons learned techniques: techniques to learn from what has happened before and what could be done better the next time.{{Cite book|last=DeLong|first=David W.|url=https://oxford.universitypressscholarship.com/view/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195170979.001.0001/acprof-9780195170979|title=Lost Knowledge|date=2004-09-16|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-517097-9|doi=10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195170979.001.0001}}
• Mentoring: a way to share a wide range of knowledge from technical values to technical and operational skills. Via mentoring programs, it is possible to share tacit norms of behaviour and cultural values.
• Chats: Informal sharing, using instant messaging platforms. The knowledge is accessible mainly in the present or by search.Stein, D. S., Wanstreet, C. E., Glazer, H. R., Engle, C. L., Harris, R. A., Johnston, S. M., ... & Trinko, L. A. (2007). Creating shared understanding through chats in a community of inquiry. The Internet and Higher Education, 10(2), 103–115.
• Wikis: digital spaces for gathering and sharing knowledge asynchronously on specific topics. Wiki pages link across topics to form an intuitive network of accumulated knowledge, using categories as a means of organizing the information.Wagner, C. (2004). Wiki: A technology for conversational knowledge management and group collaboration. Communications of the association for information systems, 13(1), 19.
• Storytelling: an informal way to share knowledge, where knowledge owner shares real life stories to other.{{Cite journal|last1=Kitimbo|first1=Irene|last2=Dalkir|first2=Kimiz|date=2013|title=Learning from Project Experience: Creating, Capturing and Sharing Knowledge|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.18848/2327-7998/cgp/v12i04/50810|journal=Knowledge Management|volume=12|issue=4|pages=59–74|doi=10.18848/2327-7998/cgp/v12i04/50810|issn=2327-7998}}
• Shared Knowledge Bases: Shared organized content, containing information and knowledge. Can be formed as websites, intranets databases, file drives, comprehensive models based on probabilistic-causal relationships.{{cite journal|last1=Cardenas|first1=IC|last2=Al-Jibouri|first2=SHS|last3=Halman |first3=JIM|last4=van Tol|first4=FA|title=Modeling Risk-Related Knowledge in Tunneling Projects |journal=Risk Analysis|date=2014|volume=34|issue=2 |pages=323–339|doi=10.1111/risa.12094 |pmid=23865765 |bibcode=2014RiskA..34..323C |s2cid=20588849 |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/risa.12094/abstract}}{{cite journal|last1=Cardenas |first1=IC|last2=Al-Jibouri|first2=SHS |last3=Halman|first3=JIM|last4=van de Linde|first4=W|last5=Kaalberg |first5=F|title=Using Prior Risk-Related Knowledge to Support Risk Management Decisions: Lessons Learnt from a Tunneling Project|journal=Risk Analysis|date=2014 |volume=34|issue=8|pages=1923–1943 |doi=10.1111/risa.12213 |pmid=24842516 |bibcode=2014RiskA..34.1923C |s2cid=1719179 |url=http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/risa.12213/abstract}} or any other form that enables the access to content by the various individuals.Levesque, H. J., & Lakemeyer, G. (2001). The logic of knowledge bases. MIT Press.
• Expert Maps: Organized lists or network of experts and corresponding expertise. Enables indirect access to the knowledge (via the expert).Huang, Z., Chen, H., Guo, F., Xu, J. J., Wu, S., & Chen, W. H. (2004, January). Visualizing the expertise space. In 37th Annual Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences, 2004. Proceedings of the (pp. 9-pp). IEEE.

Information technology (IT) systems are common tools that help facilitate knowledge sharing and knowledge management.{{cite journal|last=Gurteen|first=David|date=February 1999|title=Creating a knowledge sharing culture|journal=Knowledge Management Magazine|volume=2|issue=5}} The main role of IT systems is to help people share knowledge through common platforms and electronic storage to help make access simpler, encouraging economic reuse of knowledge. IT systems can provide codification, personalization, electronic repositories for information and can help people locate each other to communicate directly. With appropriate training and education, IT systems can make it easier for organizations to acquire, store or disseminate knowledge.

In economic theory, knowledge sharing has been studied in the field of industrial organization and in the field of contract theory. In industrial organization, Bhattacharya, Glazer, and Sappington (1992) have emphasized the importance of knowledge sharing in research joint ventures in a context of imperfect competition.{{cite journal|last1=Bhattacharya|first1=Sudipto|last2=Glazer|first2=Jacob|last3=Sappington|first3=David E.M|date=1992|title=Licensing and the sharing of knowledge in research joint ventures|url=https://pure.uvt.nl/ws/files/1149086/SBJGDS5621763.pdf|journal=Journal of Economic Theory|volume=56|issue=1|pages=43–69|doi=10.1016/0022-0531(92)90068-s|issn=0022-0531}} In the theory of incomplete contracts, Rosenkranz and Schmitz (1999, 2003) have used the Grossman-Hart-Moore property rights approach to study how knowledge sharing is affected by the underlying ownership structure.{{cite journal|last1=Rosenkranz|first1=Stephanie|last2=Schmitz|first2=Patrick W.|date=1999|title=Know-how disclosure and incomplete contracts|journal=Economics Letters|volume=63|issue=2|pages=181–185|citeseerx=10.1.1.587.5766|doi=10.1016/s0165-1765(99)00038-5|s2cid=154562354|issn=0165-1765}}{{cite journal|last1=Rosenkranz|first1=Stephanie|last2=Schmitz|first2=Patrick W.|date=2003|title=Optimal allocation of ownership rights in dynamic R&D alliances|journal=Games and Economic Behavior|volume=43|issue=1|pages=153–173|doi=10.1016/s0899-8256(02)00553-5|s2cid=36045445|issn=0899-8256}}

Knowledge is transferred in organizations whether it is a managed process or not since everyday knowledge transfer is a key part of organizational life. However, finding the best expert to share their knowledge in a specific matter could be hard, especially in larger organizations. Therefore, a structured strategy for knowledge transfer is required for the organization to thrive. Larger companies have a higher tendency to invest more on knowledge management processes, although competitive benefits are gained regardless of organization size.{{cite journal |last1=Soniewicki |first1=Marcin |last2=Paliszkiewicz |first2=Joanna |title=The Importance of Knowledge Management Processes for the Creation of Competitive Advantage by Companies of Varying Size, Entrepreneurial Business and Economics review |journal=Entrepreneurial Business and Economics Review |date=2019 |volume= 7|issue=3 |doi=10.15678/EBER.2019.070303 |doi-access=free }}

In an organizational context, tacit knowledge refers to a kind of knowledge that human beings develop by the experience they gain over years.{{cite journal|last1=Ribeiro|first1=Rodrigo|date=22 January 2012|title=Tacit knowledge management|journal=Phenomenology and the Cognitive Sciences|volume=12|issue=2|pages=337–366|doi=10.1007/s11097-011-9251-x|s2cid=143715299}} At present the employees' experience and knowledge can be seen as the most important and most valuable source that organizations have to protect.{{cite web|last1=Urbancová|first1=Hana|last2=Urbanec|first2=Jiří|date=January 2011|title=The survey of tacit knowledge sharing in organization|url=https://dk.upce.cz/bitstream/handle/10195/42187/UrbancovaH_TheSurveyOfTacit_2011.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y|access-date=14 November 2019|pages=220–230|issue=Scientific papers of the University of Pardubice. Series D, Faculty of Economics and Administration}} Knowledge constitutes a valuable, intangible asset for creating and sustaining competitive advantages within organizations. Several factors affect knowledge sharing in organizations, such as organizational culture, trust, incentives, and technology. In an organization, five distinct conditions of the organizational culture have a positive effect on knowledge-sharing: communication and coordination between groups, trust, top management support, the reward system, and openness.{{Cite book|last=Dalkir|first=Kimiz|title=Knowledge management in theory and practice|publisher=MIT Press|year=2005|isbn=9780262036870|location=Cambridge, Massachusetts}} Concerning the communication and coordination between groups condition, the organizations that are centralized with a bureaucratic management style can hinder the creation of new knowledge whereas a flexible decentralized organizational structure encourages knowledge-sharing.{{Cite journal|last=Titi Amayah|first=Angela|date=2013|title=Determinants of knowledge sharing in a public sector organization|url=https://www.proquest.com/docview/1365807770|journal=Journal of Knowledge Management|volume=17|issue=3|pages=454–471|doi=10.1108/JKM-11-2012-0369|id={{ProQuest|1365807770}}}} Also, internationalization is crucial for compliance or conformity. Dalkir (2005) says that internationalization is believing that the "behavior dictated by the norm truly the right and proper way to behave". If the norm is to communicate and collaborate between teams, it will be much easier for members of the group to internalize these values and act accordingly.

Drivers for knowledge sharing are connected to both human resources and software.{{cite journal |last1=Donnelly |first1=Rory |title=Aligning knowledge sharing interventions with the promotion of firm success: The need for SHRM to balance tensions and challenges |journal=Journal of Business Research |date=2019 |volume=94 |page=344-352|doi=10.1016/j.jbusres.2018.02.007 |s2cid=53962018 }} Knowledge sharing activities are commonly supported by knowledge management systems, a form of information technology (IT) that facilitates and organizes information within a company or organization. Knowledge sharing in knowledge management systems can be driven by accountability-inducing management practices. The combination of evaluation and reward as an accountability-inducing management practice has been presented as and effective way for enhancing knowledge sharing.{{cite journal |last1=Wang |first1=Sheng |last2=Noe |first2=Raymond, A. |last3=Wang |first3=Zhong-Ming |title=Motivating Knowledge Sharing in Knowledge Management Systems: A Quasi–Field Experiment |journal=Journal of Management |date=May 2014 |volume=40 |issue=4 |page=978-1009|doi=10.1177/0149206311412192 |s2cid=146351521 }}

Knowledge sharing can sometimes constitute a major challenge in the field of knowledge management. The difficulty of knowledge sharing resides in the transference of knowledge from one entity to another, Some employees and team leaders tend to resist sharing their knowledge for (inter)personal matters,{{cite journal|last1=ROSEN|first1=BENSON|last2=FURST|first2=STACIE|last3=BLACKBURN|first3=RICHARD|date=January 2007|title=Overcoming Barriers to Knowledge Sharing in Virtual Teams|journal=Organizational Dynamics|volume=36|issue=3|pages=259–273|doi=10.1016/j.orgdyn.2007.04.007|issn=0090-2616}} for instance because of the notion that knowledge is one's property; ownership, therefore, becomes very important.{{cite book|last=Dalkir|first=K.|title=Knowledge Management In Theory And Practice|publisher=Jordan Hill|year=2005|location=Oxford: Elsevier Inc|pages=132–133}} Leaders and supervisors tend to hoard information in order to demonstrate power and supremacy over their employees.

In order to counteract this, individuals must be reassured that they will receive some type of incentive for what they create. Supervisors and managers have a key role in this – they need to create a work culture which encourages employees to share their knowledge.{{Cite journal|last1=Holste|first1=J. Scott|last2=Fields|first2=Dail|date=2010-02-23|title=Trust and tacit knowledge sharing and use|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/13673271011015615|journal=Journal of Knowledge Management|volume=14|issue=1|pages=128–140|doi=10.1108/13673271011015615|issn=1367-3270}} However, Dalkir (2005) demonstrated that individuals are most commonly rewarded for what they know, not what they share. Negative consequences, such as isolation and resistance to ideas, occur when knowledge sharing is impeded.

Sometimes the problem is that a part of an employee's knowledge can be subconscious and therefore it may be difficult to share information.{{cite journal|last1=Reboul|first1=Cyril|date=2006|title=Managing Knowledge Workers: The KWP Matrix.|journal=Proceedings of the 6th International Conference MOMAN 06|pages=261–275 }} To promote knowledge sharing and remove knowledge sharing obstacles, the organizational culture of an entity should encourage discovery and innovation. Members who trust each other are willing to exchange knowledge and at the same time want to embrace knowledge from other members as well.Levin, D.Z. & Cross, R. (2004). The Strength of Weak Ties You Can Trust: The Mediating Role of Trust in Effective Knowledge Transfer. Management Science, Vol. 50, No. 11. National culture is also one of the common barriers of knowledge sharing because culture has a huge effect on how people tend to share knowledge between each other. In some cultures, people share everything, in other cultures people share when asked, and in some cultures, people do not share even if it would help to achieve common goals.

The political scientist Hélène Hatzfeld has pointed out that people who have knowledge can be reluctant to share that knowledge when they are not confident in their own expertise, so to facilitate knowledge sharing, structures can be designed to elevate everyone to the status of a potential expert and make them more comfortable contributing; one example of such a system, to which Hatzfeld attributes mixed success in this regard, is Wikipedia.{{cite journal|last=Hatzfeld|first=Hélène|year=2013|title=Partager les savoirs: quelle légitimité ?|journal=Le sujet dans la cité|language=fr|volume=2|issue=4|pages=45–55|doi=10.3917/lsdlc.004.0045}}

Pinho et al. (2012) have made a comprehensive literature review of knowledge management barriers and facilitators.{{cite journal|last1=Pinho|first1=Isabel|date=November 2011|title=Improving knowledge management processes: a hybrid positive approach.|journal=Journal of Knowledge Management|volume=16|issue=2|pages=215–242|doi=10.1108/13673271211218834}} Barriers are considered to be obstacles that hinder knowledge acquisition, creation, sharing and transfer in and between organizations based on individual, socio-organizational or technological reasons. Respectively facilitators are seen as enabling factors that improve, stimulate or promote the flow of knowledge. According to Maier et al. (2002) understanding of the process supporting knowledge management enables further consideration of the obstacles and facilitating factors.{{cite journal|last1=Maier|first1=Ronald|date=2002|title=Defining process-oriented knowledge management strategies|journal=Knowledge and Process Management|volume=9|issue=2|pages=103–118|doi=10.1002/kpm.136}}

• Knowledge market
• Knowledge translation
• Transfer of learning

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Category:Knowledge management