macrobenthos

{{Short description|Organisms that live at the bottom of a water column}}

{{benthos sidebar|size}}

Macrobenthos consists of the organisms that live at the bottom of a water columnJ.S. Link, C.A. Griswold, E.T. Methratta, J. Gunnard, Editors. 2006. [http://www.nefsc.noaa.gov/publications/crd/crd0615/pdfs/8.pdf Documentation for the Energy Modeling and Analysis eXercise (EMAX)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130227051939/http://nefsc.noaa.gov/publications/crd/crd0615/pdfs/8.pdf |date=2013-02-27 }}. United States Department of Commerce, Northeast Fisheries Science Center. Reference Document 06-15 Chapter 8. and are visible to the naked eye.{{cite web | url = http://www.mondofacto.com/facts/dictionary?macrobenthos | title = Macrobenthos definition | access-date = 2011-01-26 | date = 9 Oct 1997 | publisher = Mondofacto | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130916020143/http://mondofacto.com/facts/dictionary?macrobenthos | archive-date = 16 September 2013 | url-status = dead }} In some classification schemes, these organisms are larger than 1 mm; in another, the smallest dimension must be at least 0.5 mm.{{cite web | url = http://www.science-dictionary.com/definition/macrobenthos.html | title = Macrobenthos definition | access-date = 2011-01-26 | work = Science-Dictionary.com | url-status = dead | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110716014838/http://www.science-dictionary.com/definition/macrobenthos.html | archive-date = 2011-07-16 }} They include polychaete worms, pelecypods, anthozoans, echinoderms, sponges, ascidians, crustaceans.

The marine macrobenthos community is a critical component and reliable indicator of the biotic integrity of marine ecosystems, especially the intertidal ecosystems.{{cite journal |doi = 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2009.06.006|title = Quality assessment of benthic macroinvertebrates under the scope of WFD using BAT, the Benthic Assessment Tool|year = 2009|last1 = Teixeira|first1 = Heliana|last2 = Neto|first2 = João Magalhães|last3 = Patrício|first3 = Joana|last4 = Veríssimo|first4 = Helena|last5 = Pinto|first5 = Rute|last6 = Salas|first6 = Fuensanta|last7 = Marques|first7 = João Carlos|journal = Marine Pollution Bulletin|volume = 58|issue = 10|pages = 1477–1486|pmid = 19615698| bibcode=2009MarPB..58.1477T }}{{cite journal |doi = 10.1016/j.ecolind.2016.07.019|title = How functional traits of estuarine macrobenthic assemblages respond to metal contamination?|year = 2016|last1 = Piló|first1 = D.|last2 = Ben-Hamadou|first2 = R.|last3 = Pereira|first3 = F.|last4 = Carriço|first4 = A.|last5 = Pereira|first5 = P.|last6 = Corzo|first6 = A.|last7 = Gaspar|first7 = M.B.|last8 = Carvalho|first8 = S.|journal = Ecological Indicators|volume = 71|pages = 645–659| bibcode=2016EcInd..71..645P | s2cid=89021490 }}{{cite journal |doi = 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2020.111365|title = Functional diversity in the intertidal macrobenthic community at sewage-affected shores from Southwestern Atlantic|year = 2020|last1 = Llanos|first1 = Elizabeth Noemi|last2 = Saracho Bottero|first2 = María Andrea|last3 = Jaubet|first3 = María Lourdes|last4 = Elías|first4 = Rodolfo|last5 = Garaffo|first5 = Griselda Valeria|journal = Marine Pollution Bulletin|volume = 157|page = 111365|pmid = 32658710| bibcode=2020MarPB.15711365L |s2cid = 220518580}} On the one hand, macrobenthos plays a vital role in maintaining ecosystem functions, such as material cycling in sediments and energy flow in food webs. On the other hand, macrobenthos is relatively sedentary and therefore reflects the ambient conditions of sediments, in which many pollutants (e.g., heavy metals and organic enrichment) are ultimately partitioned.{{cite journal |doi = 10.1016/j.envpol.2011.05.034|title = The impact of heavy metal pollution gradients in sediments on benthic macrofauna at population and community levels|year = 2011|last1 = Ryu|first1 = Jongseong|last2 = Khim|first2 = Jong Seong|last3 = Kang|first3 = Seong-Gil|last4 = Kang|first4 = Daeseok|last5 = Lee|first5 = Chang-hee|last6 = Koh|first6 = Chul-Hwan|journal = Environmental Pollution|volume = 159|issue = 10|pages = 2622–2629|pmid = 21684642| bibcode=2011EPoll.159.2622R }}{{cite journal |doi = 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.08.267|title = Assessing anthropogenic pressure in the St. Lawrence River using traits of benthic macroinvertebrates|year = 2019|last1 = Desrosiers|first1 = Mélanie|last2 = Usseglio-Polatera|first2 = Philippe|last3 = Archaimbault|first3 = Virginie|last4 = Larras|first4 = Floriane|last5 = Méthot|first5 = Ginette|last6 = Pinel-Alloul|first6 = Bernadette|journal = Science of the Total Environment|volume = 649|pages = 233–246|pmid = 30173032|bibcode = 2019ScTEn.649..233D|s2cid = 52167429}}{{cite journal |doi = 10.3389/fmars.2021.756814|doi-access = free|title = Functional Trait Responses of Macrobenthos to Anthropogenic Pressure in Three Temperate Intertidal Communities|year = 2021|last1 = Dong|first1 = Jian-Yu|last2 = Zhao|first2 = Linlin|last3 = Yang|first3 = Xiaolong|last4 = Sun|first4 = Xin|last5 = Zhang|first5 = Xiumei|journal = Frontiers in Marine Science|volume = 8}} 50px Material was copied from this source, which is available under a [https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License].

Heavy metal pollution is one of the most common anthropogenic pressures that impact marine ecosystems (e.g., intertidal zones, coastal waters, and estuaries), which has been documented by many studies throughout the world.{{cite journal |doi = 10.1007/s11356-019-04809-8|title = Structure of the benthic macrofauna of an anthropogenic influenced area: Skhira Bay (Gulf of Gabès, central Mediterranean Sea)|year = 2019|last1 = Boudaya|first1 = Lobna|last2 = Mosbahi|first2 = Nawfel|last3 = Dauvin|first3 = Jean-Claude|last4 = Neifar|first4 = Lassad|journal = Environmental Science and Pollution Research|volume = 26|issue = 13|pages = 13522–13538|pmid = 30911967| bibcode=2019ESPR...2613522B |s2cid = 85517094}}{{cite journal |doi = 10.1007/s10661-020-08352-9|title = Trace metal contamination in sediment in the Mhlathuze Estuary, northern Kwa Zulu-Natal, South Africa: Effects on the macrobenthic community|year = 2020|last1 = Izegaegbe|first1 = Joshua Idowu|last2 = Vivier|first2 = Leon|last3 = Mzimela|first3 = Hendrick Mduduzi|journal = Environmental Monitoring and Assessment|volume = 192|issue = 6|page = 401|pmid = 32468333|pmc = 7256079| bibcode=2020EMnAs.192..401I }}{{cite journal |doi = 10.1016/j.envpol.2020.113986|title = Heavy metal contamination in surface sediments: A comprehensive, large-scale evaluation for the Bohai Sea, China|year = 2020|last1 = Wang|first1 = Xuejing|last2 = Fu|first2 = Renlong|last3 = Li|first3 = Hailong|last4 = Zhang|first4 = Yan|last5 = Lu|first5 = Meiqing|last6 = Xiao|first6 = Kai|last7 = Zhang|first7 = Xiaolang|last8 = Zheng|first8 = Chunmiao|last9 = Xiong|first9 = Ying|journal = Environmental Pollution|volume = 260|page = 113986|pmid = 31995779| bibcode=2020EPoll.26013986W |s2cid = 210947470}} Heavy metal contaminants can result in adverse toxic effects on benthic organisms,{{cite journal |doi = 10.1002/etc.5620151205|title = Bioavailability and chronic toxicity of cadmium in sediment to the estuarine amphipod Leptocheirus plumulosus|year = 1996|last1 = Dewitt|first1 = Theodore H.|last2 = Swartz|first2 = Richard C.|last3 = Hansen|first3 = David J.|last4 = McGovern|first4 = Douglas|last5 = Berry|first5 = Walter J.|journal = Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry|volume = 15|issue = 12|pages = 2095–2101}}{{cite journal |doi = 10.1021/acs.est.7b06556|title = Influence of Metal Contamination and Sediment Deposition on Benthic Invertebrate Colonization at the North Fork Clear Creek Superfund Site, Colorado, USA|year = 2018|last1 = Dabney|first1 = Brittanie L.|last2 = Clements|first2 = William H.|last3 = Williamson|first3 = Jacob L.|last4 = Ranville|first4 = James F.|journal = Environmental Science & Technology|volume = 52|issue = 12|pages = 7072–7080|pmid = 29812923|pmc = 6008246|bibcode = 2018EnST...52.7072D}} leading to the changes in composition, structure, and ecosystem function of macrobenthic communities.{{cite journal |doi = 10.1016/S0269-7491(02)00229-4|title = Macrobenthic community in the Douro estuary: Relations with trace metals and natural sediment characteristics|year = 2003|last1 = Mucha|first1 = Ana P.|last2 = Vasconcelos|first2 = M.Teresa S.D|last3 = Bordalo|first3 = Adriano A.|journal = Environmental Pollution|volume = 121|issue = 2|pages = 169–180|pmid = 12521105}}{{cite journal |doi = 10.1016/j.envpol.2019.06.117|title = Macrobenthos functional trait responses to heavy metal pollution gradients in a temperate lagoon|year = 2019|last1 = Hu|first1 = Chengye|last2 = Dong|first2 = Jianyu|last3 = Gao|first3 = Lijia|last4 = Yang|first4 = Xiaolong|last5 = Wang|first5 = Zhan|last6 = Zhang|first6 = Xiumei|journal = Environmental Pollution|volume = 253|pages = 1107–1116|pmid = 31434188| bibcode=2019EPoll.253.1107H |s2cid = 198353433}}{{cite journal |doi = 10.1007/s11270-020-04731-7|title = Assessment of the Effects of Sediment-Associated Metals and Metalloids on Mangrove Macroinvertebrate Assemblages|year = 2020|last1 = Roe|first1 = Rebecca A. L.|last2 = Tran|first2 = Thi Kim Anh|last3 = Schreider|first3 = Maria J.|last4 = MacFarlane|first4 = Geoff R.|journal = Water, Air, & Soil Pollution|volume = 231|issue = 7|page = 352|bibcode = 2020WASP..231..352R|s2cid = 220309439}}{{cite journal |doi = 10.3389/fmars.2021.637546|doi-access = free|title = Determining the Ecological Status of Benthic Coastal Communities: A Case in an Anthropized Sub-Arctic Area|year = 2021|last1 = Dreujou|first1 = Elliot|last2 = Desroy|first2 = Nicolas|last3 = Carrière|first3 = Julie|last4 = Tréau De Coeli|first4 = Lisa|last5 = McKindsey|first5 = Christopher W.|last6 = Archambault|first6 = Philippe|journal = Frontiers in Marine Science|volume = 8}} For example, in Aveiro Lagoon (Portugal), with the increase of mercury contamination, the total abundance and species richness decreased, and tolerant taxa increased;{{cite journal |doi = 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2008.07.009|title = The macrobenthic community along a mercury contamination in a temperate estuarine system (Ria de Aveiro, Portugal)|year = 2008|last1 = Nunes|first1 = M.|last2 = Coelho|first2 = J.P.|last3 = Cardoso|first3 = P.G.|last4 = Pereira|first4 = M.E.|last5 = Duarte|first5 = A.C.|last6 = Pardal|first6 = M.A.|journal = Science of the Total Environment|volume = 405|issue = 1–3|pages = 186–194|pmid = 18765161|bibcode = 2008ScTEn.405..186N}} in Incheon Harbour (Korea) and the coastal zone south of Sfax (Tunisia), macrobenthic community gradually changed with the pollution levels, and species diversity decreased with decreased distance from the pollution source.{{cite journal |doi = 10.1016/j.envpol.2019.06.080|title = Response of benthic macrofauna to multiple anthropogenic pressures in the shallow coastal zone south of Sfax (Tunisia, central Mediterranean Sea)|year = 2019|last1 = Mosbahi|first1 = Nawfel|last2 = Serbaji|first2 = Mohamed Moncef|last3 = Pezy|first3 = Jean-Philippe|last4 = Neifar|first4 = Lassad|last5 = Dauvin|first5 = Jean-Claude|journal = Environmental Pollution|volume = 253|pages = 474–487|pmid = 31330340| bibcode=2019EPoll.253..474M |s2cid = 198170686}} However, most of the studies were conducted in the subtidal zones other than intertidal zones, which are more vulnerable to human activities.

Macrobenthos consists of numerous taxa, and different species have a different tolerance to environmental pressures. For example, polychaetes Capitella capitata and Heteromastus filiformis are naturally tolerant to environmental disturbance, which could live well in a highly organic enrichment and/or heavy metal polluted area,{{cite journal |doi = 10.1002/etc.5620180631|title = Effects of chronic metal exposure and sediment organic matter on digestive absorption efficiency of cadmium by the deposit-feeding polychaete Capitellaspecies I|year = 1999|last1 = Selck|first1 = Henriette|last2 = Decho|first2 = Alan W.|last3 = Forbes|first3 = Valery E.|journal = Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry|volume = 18|issue = 6|pages = 1289–1297| s2cid=247666449 }}{{cite journal |doi = 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2016.12.112|title = Impacts of environmental and anthropogenic stresses on macrozoobenthic communities in Jinhae Bay, Korea|year = 2017|last1 = Bae|first1 = Hanna|last2 = Lee|first2 = Jung-Ho|last3 = Song|first3 = Sung Joon|last4 = Park|first4 = Jinsoon|last5 = Kwon|first5 = Bong-Oh|last6 = Hong|first6 = Seongjin|last7 = Ryu|first7 = Jongseong|last8 = Choi|first8 = Kyungsik|last9 = Khim|first9 = Jong Seong|journal = Chemosphere|volume = 171|pages = 681–691|pmid = 28061426|bibcode = 2017Chmsp.171..681B}} while some taxa (e.g., polychaete Magelona dakini and amphipods Perioculodes longimanus) are inherently sensitive to environmental disturbance, and could not survive in such highly polluted zones.{{cite journal |doi = 10.1016/j.ecss.2011.10.020|title = Sensitivity of amphipods to sewage pollution|year = 2012|last1 = De-La-Ossa-Carretero|first1 = J.A.|last2 = Del-Pilar-Ruso|first2 = Y.|last3 = Giménez-Casalduero|first3 = F.|last4 = Sánchez-Lizaso|first4 = J.L.|last5 = Dauvin|first5 = J.-C.|journal = Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science|volume = 96|pages = 129–138|bibcode = 2012ECSS...96..129D}}{{cite journal |doi = 10.1038/s41598-017-12323-5|title = Multiple stressor effects on marine infauna: Responses of estuarine taxa and functional traits to sedimentation, nutrient and metal loading|year = 2017|last1 = Ellis|first1 = J. I.|last2 = Clark|first2 = D.|last3 = Atalah|first3 = J.|last4 = Jiang|first4 = W.|last5 = Taiapa|first5 = C.|last6 = Patterson|first6 = M.|last7 = Sinner|first7 = J.|last8 = Hewitt|first8 = J.|journal = Scientific Reports|volume = 7|issue = 1|page = 12013|pmid = 28931887|pmc = 5607226|bibcode = 2017NatSR...712013E}}

File:Capitella capitata (Fabricius 1780) (30726945752).jpg| The polychaete Capitella capitata

File:Heteromastus filiformis (I781) (14471214033).jpg| The polychaete Heteromastus filiformis

File:Perioculodes longimanus.jpg| The amphipod Perioculodes longimanus

{{clear}}

This indicates that each species has evolved a unique survival strategy to adapt to different environmental conditions, even though it may be similar in some ways with other species. When facing loads of contaminants, such as metal(loid)s and organic enrichment or other contaminants gradients, macrobenthos have to make some reactions to resist such adverse environmental conditions. Therefore, macrobenthic responses may reflect different types and levels of pollutant impacts.

A visual examination of macroorganisms at the bottom of an aquatic ecosystem can be a good indicator of water quality.Mulligan CN, Fukue M and Sato Y (2010) [https://books.google.com/books?id=iXt-VbW6Iw8C&dq=%22Sediments+Contamination+and+Sustainable+Remediation%22&pg=PA238 Sediments Contamination and Sustainable Remediation] page 30, CRC Press. {{ISBN|9781420062236}}.

File:Posidonia oceanica Portofino 02.jpg|Seagrass

File:Nerr0878.jpg|Echinoderms

File:Scheibenanemonen (Actinodiscus spec).jpg|Stony corals

File:Seasquirt.jpg|A sea squirt being used as a substrate for a nudibranch's egg spiral

{{clear}}