malikâne

{{Short description|Tax farming system in the Ottoman Empire}}

{{Taxation in the Ottoman Empire sidebar}}

Malikâne was a form of tax farming introduced in the Ottoman empire in 1695. It was intended as an improvement on the Iltizam system, in which a tax-farmer was responsible for a single year. Malikâne contracts were for life; this provided more security for the tax farmer (malikaneci) and a less exploitative relationship with the peasants; malikanecis might even make investments to improve productivity. However, vested interests - from existing mültezims who benefited from the Iltizam system - prevented wider adoption of malikâne.{{cite book|title=An Introduction to Religious Foundations in the Ottoman Empire|year=1987|publisher=Barnes|isbn=9789004086524|pages=67}} Also, malikâne could not be converted into vakf - an important distinction from mülk.

A malikâne tax-farm, typically for a village or district, would be auctioned to the highest bidder; in return for collecting all state taxes (rüsüm) from that area,{{cite book|title=State and Provincial Society in the Ottoman Empire: Mosul, 1540-1834|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=9780521894302|pages=102}} the winner of the auction would make a large downpayment called muaccele, and then annual payments called mâl. The auction determined the initial payment - subject to a minimum price set by the treasury. A malikaneci might finance their initial payment by borrowing from a moneylender or sarraf - who would expect to take a cut of the tax revenue; this could even become a second layer of tax-farming.

The winner of the auction was given a document called "berat", as proof of their right to the tax-farm. In theory, when the tenant died their tax farm would revert to the state, but a tenant could give the tax-farm to an heir if the treasury agreed (and officials would expect to be paid for their agreement).{{cite book|title=An Introduction to Religious Foundations in the Ottoman Empire|year=1987|publisher=Barnes|isbn=9789004086524|pages=68}}

As the tax-farming market became more competitive, the treasury collected bigger payments, but profitability for tax-farmers decreased.{{cite book|title=A Comparative Evolution of Business Partnerships: The Islamic World and Europe, With Specific Reference to the Ottoman Archives|year=1996|isbn=9789004106017|pages=168}}

The malikâne system may have been modelled on an earlier system of "double rent" paid by waqfs.

From the treasury's perspective, malikâne was a more reliable source of revenue. Auctions of local tax-farming rights had the effect of integrating diverse provincial tax-farmers into the Ottoman state,{{cite book|title=State and Provincial Society in the Ottoman Empire: Mosul, 1540-1834|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=9780521894302|pages=9}} and also helped build a more modern concept of private landownership.{{cite book|title=A Comparative Evolution of Business Partnerships: The Islamic World and Europe, With Specific Reference to the Ottoman Archives|year=1996|isbn=9789004106017|pages=164}}