menstrual stigma

Menstruation, deeply intertwined with intricate cultural beliefs, is often accompanied by taboos, myths, stigmatization, negative emotions, and feelings of shame.{{cite journal |last1=Barrington |first1=Dani Jennifer |last2=Robinson |first2=Hannah Jayne |last3=Wilson |first3=Emily |last4=Hennegan |first4=Julie |date=2021-07-21 |title=Experiences of menstruation in high income countries: A systematic review, qualitative evidence synthesis and comparison to low- and middle-income countries |journal=PLOS ONE |publisher=Public Library of Science (PLoS) |volume=16 |issue=7 |page=e0255001 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0255001 |issn=1932-6203 |pmc=8294489 |pmid=34288971 |doi-access=free|bibcode=2021PLoSO..1655001B }}{{cite journal |last1=Hensel |first1=Devon J. |last2=Fortenberry |first2=J. Dennis |last3=Orr |first3=Donald P. |date=2007-07-23 |title=Situational and Relational Factors Associated With Coitus During Vaginal Bleeding Among Adolescent Women |journal=Journal of Sex Research |publisher=Informa UK Limited |volume=44 |issue=3 |pages=269–277 |doi=10.1080/00224490701443940 |issn=0022-4499 |pmc=3816549 |pmid=17879170}} The associated beliefs and practices exhibit variations influenced by factors like country, religion, and social status.{{cite journal |last1=Crawford |first1=Mary |last2=Menger |first2=Lauren M. |last3=Kaufman |first3=Michelle R. |date=2014-04-04 |title='This is a natural process': managing menstrual stigma in Nepal |journal=Culture, Health & Sexuality |publisher=Informa UK Limited |volume=16 |issue=4 |pages=426–439 |doi=10.1080/13691058.2014.887147 |issn=1369-1058 |pmid=24697583 |s2cid=487678}}{{cite journal |last1=Severy |first1=Lawrence J. |last2=Thapa |first2=S. |last3=Askew |first3=I. |last4=Glor |first4=J. |date=1993-06-28 |title=Menstrual Experiences and Beliefs |journal=Women & Health |publisher=Informa UK Limited |volume=20 |issue=2 |pages=1–20 |doi=10.1300/j013v20n02_01 |issn=0363-0242 |pmid=8372476}} Cultural norms play a pivotal role in determining whether menstruation is a source of social stigma that is concealed or observable. For instance, in the United States, menstruation is predominantly concealed owing to societal norms of secrecy. In Tanzania, both Christian and Muslim menstruating individuals report experiencing religion-based menstrual restrictions, including being prohibited from prayer during menstruation.{{Cite journal |last1=King |first1=Aisha S. |last2=Sikkema |first2=Kathleen J. |last3=Rubli |first3=Jennifer |last4=DeVries |first4=Britt |last5=Cherenack |first5=Emily M. |title="Due to These Restrictions, Girls Think of Themselves as Nothing": A Qualitative and Quantitative Description of Menstrual Restrictions and Stigma Among Adolescent Girls Across Religious and Other Sociocultural Contexts |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/jad.12463 |journal=Journal of Adolescence |date=2025 |language=en |volume=n/a |issue=n/a |doi=10.1002/jad.12463 |issn=1095-9254|doi-access=free }} Those who menstruate in Sub-Saharan Africa are frequently excluded from social and personal activities, inclusive of religious practices, cooking, sexual intercourse, sleeping in their beds, and even sitting near men.{{Cite journal |last1=Anbesu |first1=Etsay Woldu |last2=Asgedom |first2=Dejen Kahsay |date=2023-01-06 |title=Menstrual hygiene practice and associated factors among adolescent girls in sub-Saharan Africa: a systematic review and meta-analysis |journal=BMC Public Health |volume=23 |issue=1 |pages=33 |doi=10.1186/s12889-022-14942-8 |doi-access=free |issn=1471-2458 |pmc=9817285 |pmid=36604734}} In certain societies like Nepal, the onset of menstruation is commemorated through public rituals, and those undergoing menstruation may be secluded.{{cite book |last1=Buckley |first1=Thomas C. T. |title=Blood Magic: The Anthropology of Menstruation |last2=Gottlieb |first2=Alma |date=1988 |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=0-520-06085-7 |publication-place=Berkeley, Calif. |pages=1–50 |chapter=A Critical Appraisal of Theories of Menstrual Symbolism}}

Cultures and regions also vary in the knowledge individuals have about menstruation, as well as their access to adequate menstrual hygiene products. For example, roughly 50% of menstruating adolescents in India have no knowledge of menstruation before menarche.{{Cite web |title=Shibboleth Authentication Request |url=https://go.gale.com/ps/i.do?p=AONE&u=wash43584&id=GALE%7CA668597439&v=2.1&it=r&sid=bookmark-AONE&asid=d8b33f95 |access-date=2025-04-07 |website=proxy.library.georgetown.edu}}{{Cite web |title=Menstrual Hygiene Management Enables Women and Girls to Reach Their Full Potential |url=https://www.worldbank.org/en/news/feature/2018/05/25/menstrual-hygiene-management |access-date=2025-04-07 |website=World Bank |language=en}} According to a 2023 national survey, nearly 25% of teens and approximately one-third of adults in the United States report challenges in accessing affordable period products.{{Cite journal |last1=Revak |first1=Sarah |last2=Cuttin |first2=Karen |last3=Bernhard |first3=Bianca Nfonoyim |last4=Davies |first4=Shelby H. |date=2024-11-13 |title=The Menstrual Health Equity Initiative — Access to Menstrual Products for People Experiencing Homelessness |url=https://www.nejm.org/doi/10.1056/NEJMp2409709 |journal=New England Journal of Medicine |volume=391 |issue=19 |pages=1765–1767 |doi=10.1056/NEJMp2409709 |pmid=39530414 |issn=0028-4793}}{{Cite web |title=Period Poverty and Stigma |url=https://period.org/periodpoverty# |access-date=2025-04-07 |website=Period.org}} Research shows that, among American adolescents, menstrual knowledge and preparedness are disproportionately lowest among low-income and BIPOC populations.{{Cite journal |last1=Schmitt |first1=Margaret L. |last2=Hagstrom |first2=Christine |last3=Nowara |first3=Azure |last4=Gruer |first4=Caitlin |last5=Adenu-Mensah |first5=Nana Ekua |last6=Keeley |first6=Katie |last7=Sommer |first7=Marni |date=2021-01-01 |title=The intersection of menstruation, school and family: Experiences of girls growing up in urban cities in the U.S.A |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/02673843.2020.1867207 |journal=International Journal of Adolescence and Youth |volume=26 |issue=1 |pages=94–109 |doi=10.1080/02673843.2020.1867207 |issn=0267-3843 |via=Taylor & Francis|doi-access=free }}{{Cite journal |last1=Herbert |first1=Ann C. |last2=Ramirez |first2=Ana Maria |last3=Lee |first3=Grace |last4=North |first4=Savannah J. |last5=Askari |first5=Melanie S. |last6=West |first6=Rebecca L. |last7=Sommer |first7=Marni |date=2017 |title=Puberty Experiences of Low-Income Girls in the United States: A Systematic Review of Qualitative Literature From 2000 to 2014 |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28041680 |journal=The Journal of Adolescent Health |volume=60 |issue=4 |pages=363–379 |doi=10.1016/j.jadohealth.2016.10.008 |issn=1879-1972 |pmid=28041680}} Furthermore, the Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP) in the U.S., commonly known as food stamps, only covers food items, excluding hygiene products such as shampoo, soap, toothpaste, and menstrual supplies.{{Cite web |title=Food Stamps (SNAP) Don't Cover Hygiene Supplies |url=https://provisionpromise.org/blogs/promise/food-stamps-don-t-cover-hygiene-supplies?srsltid=AfmBOoqSqXO-3lKQewkuik0pieBaeVCkQPxJyQFTVYqU7CZBYkq7z7BN |access-date=2025-04-07 |website=Provision Promise |language=en}} As of now, there is no federal program in the U.S. that provides assistance for menstrual products.

Some countries, on the other hand, have found success in passing legislation to expand period product access. Scotland, for example, passed the Period Products (Free Provision) Act 2021, which made the country the first in the world to legally mandate free period products for anyone in need.{{Cite web |title=Free period products |url=https://www.gov.scot/policies/poverty-and-social-justice/access-to-free-period-products/ |access-date=2025-04-07 |website=www.gov.scot |language=en}}

The notion that menstruation is a cause of impurity and danger has persisted into the contemporary era. According to a survey conducted by the World Health Organization involving women from 10 different countries, certain cultures still view menstruating women as impure, leading to restrictions in their religious or social activities. The WHO survey not only recorded both negative and positive attitudes toward menstruation but also highlighted culturally enforced sanctions (such as being prohibited from cooking) and self-imposed restrictions (such as refraining from washing one's hair).{{cite book |title=Patterns and perceptions of menstruation: a World Health Organization international collaborative study in Egypt, India, Indonesia, Jamaica, Mexico, Pakistan, Philippines, Republic of Korea, United Kingdom and Yugoslavia |date=1983 |publisher=Croom Helm |isbn=978-0-312-59809-9 |editor-last1=Snowden |editor-first1=Robert |publication-place=London |editor-last2=Christian |editor-first2=Barbara}}{{cite journal |date=1981 |title=A cross-cultural study of menstruation: implications for contraceptive development and use. World Health Organization Task Force on Psychosocial Research in Family Planning, Special Programme of Research, Development and Research, Training in Human Reproduction |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/7466889/ |journal=Studies in Family Planning |publisher=Stud Fam Plann |volume=12 |issue=1 |pages=3–16 |issn=0039-3665 |pmid=7466889}}

People often use euphemisms like "time of the month," "Aunt Flow," and "on the rag" to refer to menstruation, highlighting the discomfort and stigma associated with it.{{cite book | last=Newton | first=Victoria Louise | title=Everyday Discourses of Menstruation | chapter=‘Auntie’s Come to Tea’: Menstrual Euphemism | publisher=Palgrave Macmillan UK | publication-place=London | year=2016 | isbn=978-1-137-48774-2 | doi=10.1057/978-1-137-48775-9_8 | pages=133–145}} This stigma is a global phenomenon, with menstruation often seen as something impure that should be kept private. Many individuals, from a young age, are taught that menstruation is something to be concealed or hidden for women to lead their everyday lives.{{cite journal | last1=Peranovic | first1=Tamara | last2=Bentley | first2=Brenda | title=Men and Menstruation: A Qualitative Exploration of Beliefs, Attitudes and Experiences | journal=Sex Roles | publisher=Springer Science and Business Media LLC | volume=77 | issue=1–2 | date=2016-11-16 | issn=0360-0025 | doi=10.1007/s11199-016-0701-3 | pages=113–124| s2cid=151698754 }} The media plays a role in perpetuating this stigma through advertisements that stress secrecy, avoidance of embarrassment, and freshness. They also use euphemistic images and colors (like blue instead of red) to describe menstruation.{{cite book | last=Fahs | first=Breanne | chapter=Sex During Menstruation: Race, Sexual Identity, and Women's Accounts of Pleasure and Disgust | title=The Palgrave Handbook of Critical Menstruation Studies | publisher=Springer Singapore | publication-place=Singapore | year=2020 | isbn=978-981-15-0613-0 | doi=10.1007/978-981-15-0614-7_69 | pages=961–984| pmid=33347212 }}{{cite book | last1=Johnston-Robledo | first1=Ingrid | last2=Chrisler | first2=Joan C. | title=The Palgrave Handbook of Critical Menstruation Studies | chapter=The Menstrual Mark: Menstruation as Social Stigma | publisher=Springer Singapore | publication-place=Singapore | year=2020 | isbn=978-981-15-0613-0 | doi=10.1007/978-981-15-0614-7_17 | pages=181–199| pmid=33347160 }}{{cite journal | last=Sveen | first=Hanna | title=LavaorCode Red: A Linguistic Study of Menstrual Expressions in English and Swedish | journal=Women's Reproductive Health | publisher=Informa UK Limited | volume=3 | issue=3 | year=2016 | issn=2329-3691 | doi=10.1080/23293691.2016.1237712 | pages=145–159}} Menstrual stigma can be passed on through educational materials, communication (or lack thereof), and the language used to discuss it (e.g., euphemisms).

Scholar Kate McHugh introduces the term "menstrual moaning" to describe how women often talk about menstruation in negative terms, focusing on pain, discomfort, or moodiness.{{Citation |last=McHugh |first=Maureen C. |title=Menstrual Shame: Exploring the Role of 'Menstrual Moaning' |date=2020 |work=The Palgrave Handbook of Critical Menstruation Studies |pages=409–422 |editor-last=Bobel |editor-first=Chris |url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK565666/?utm_source=chatgpt.com |access-date=2025-04-07 |place=Singapore |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |doi=10.1007/978-981-15-0614-7_32 |isbn=978-981-15-0613-0 |pmid=33347210 |editor2-last=Winkler |editor2-first=Inga T. |editor3-last=Fahs |editor3-first=Breanne |editor4-last=Hasson |editor4-first=Katie Ann}} This negative talk surrounding menstruation can further reinforce menstrual shame and cultural beliefs that portray women's bodies as defective or impure.{{Cite journal |last1=Åkerman |first1=Eva |last2=Wängborg |first2=Anna |last3=Persson |first3=Maria |last4=Sörensdotter |first4=Renita |last5=Klingberg-Allvin |first5=Marie |date=2024-12-17 |title=Navigating menstrual stigma and norms: a qualitative study on young people's menstrual experiences and strategies for improving menstrual health |journal=BMC Public Health |volume=24 |issue=1 |pages=3401 |doi=10.1186/s12889-024-20936-5 |doi-access=free |issn=1471-2458 |pmc=11654398 |pmid=39690406}}

Feminists and various activists have countered negative depictions of menstruation by advocating for positive perspectives. They do so primarily through educational and media campaigns, consciousness-raising efforts, and by challenging conventional representations of menstruation. These actions aim to promote more affirming views of menstruation within various institutions like education, healthcare, families, and media.{{cite journal | last=Fahs | first=Breanne | title=Sex during menstruation: Race, sexual identity, and women's accounts of pleasure and disgust | journal=Feminism & Psychology | publisher=SAGE Publications | volume=21 | issue=2 | date=2011-01-19 | issn=0959-3535 | doi=10.1177/0959353510396674 | pages=155–178| s2cid=55169009 }}{{cite book | last=Kissling | first=Elizabeth Arveda | title=Capitalizing on the Curse | publisher=L. Rienner | publication-place=Boulder, Colo | date=2006 | isbn=978-1-58826-310-0}} While feminist scholars and activists have endeavored to encourage the celebration of menarche and menstruation, their positive messages may be eclipsed or obscured by the prevailing stigmatizing narratives.

Activists and their works––such as Gloria Steinem, who wrote the satirical essay "If Men Could Menstruate," and Judy Chicago who created the photolithograph titled "Red Flag"––have challenged menstrual stigma by confronting cultural taboos and highlighting the gendered politics of menstruation. Organizations such as #HappyPeriod and Period: the Menstrual Movement have worked to provide low-income and homeless communities with menstrual hygiene products.{{Citation |last1=Bobel |first1=Chris |title=The Messy Politics of Menstrual Activism |date=2020 |work=The Palgrave Handbook of Critical Menstruation Studies |editor-last=Bobel |editor-first=Chris |url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK565607/?utm_source=chatgpt.com |access-date=2025-04-07 |place=Singapore |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |isbn=978-981-15-0613-0 |pmid=33347157 |last2=Fahs |first2=Breanne |doi=10.1007/978-981-15-0614-7_71 |editor2-last=Winkler |editor2-first=Inga T. |editor3-last=Fahs |editor3-first=Breanne |editor4-last=Hasson |editor4-first=Katie Ann}}

The menstrual stigma can have detrimental effects on various aspects of women's lives, including their overall well-being, somatic and mental health, social status, and sexual activity.{{cite book |last=McHugh |first=Maureen C. |title=The Palgrave Handbook of Critical Menstruation Studies |publisher=Springer Singapore |year=2020 |isbn=978-981-15-0613-0 |publication-place=Singapore |pages=409–422 |chapter=Menstrual Shame: Exploring the Role of 'Menstrual Moaning' |doi=10.1007/978-981-15-0614-7_32 |pmid=33347210 |s2cid=226422513}}{{cite book |last1=Johnston-Robledo |first1=Ingrid |title=The Palgrave Handbook of Critical Menstruation Studies |last2=Chrisler |first2=Joan C. |publisher=Springer Singapore |year=2020 |isbn=978-981-15-0613-0 |publication-place=Singapore |pages=181–199 |chapter=The Menstrual Mark: Menstruation as Social Stigma |doi=10.1007/978-981-15-0614-7_17 |pmid=33347160}}

Women who internalize these negative attitudes often take active measures to hide their menstrual status, such as wearing loose clothing and avoiding certain activities to prevent any signs. This constant effort to conceal their menstruation leads to increased self-awareness, heightened vigilance, and a sense of shame related to their periods. Failing to hide it can make them feel as though they've fallen short of societal expectations of proper menstrual etiquette.

The stigma can have adverse effects on women's sexual lives since engaging in sexual activity during menstruation is often viewed as socially unacceptable.{{cite journal |last1=Allen |first1=Katherine R. |last2=Goldberg |first2=Abbie E. |date=2009-11-10 |title=Sexual Activity During Menstruation: A Qualitative Study |journal=Journal of Sex Research |publisher=Informa UK Limited |volume=46 |issue=6 |pages=535–545 |doi=10.1080/00224490902878977 |issn=0022-4499 |pmid=19350441 |s2cid=20217811}} Both men and women may use derogatory terms like "disgusting," "smelly," "awkward," "dirty," and "messy" when referring to menstruation and sex during this time. Younger, single individuals with less sexual experience are more likely to avoid intercourse during menstruation and use negative language to describe it. In contrast, older, more experienced couples are more inclined to see sexual activity during menstruation as acceptable and enjoyable.

Menstrual stigma significantly impacts individuals in both education and professional environments, often exacerbating gender inequality and hindering access to opportunity.

In schools, menstruation is often associated with shame and secrecy. Students report feeling embarrassed to change menstrual products during the school day, often concealing products and avoiding bathroom trips for fear of their menstrual status being exposed to classmates and teachers. Some adolescents report discomfort requesting bathroom access from teachers, and that the embarrassment from menstrual stains has led them to leave school.

Pain management presents additional challenges. Despite needing medication for cramps or other symptoms, students are often prohibited from bringing painkillers to school, resulting in covert use or unrelieved suffering. Moreover, a lack of consistent nursing staff in schools further hinders access to care, contributing to decreased academic engagement and social withdrawal during menstruation.{{Cite web |last=Ziminski |first=Devon |date=2016-09-12 |title=Lack of School Nurses May Endanger Student Well-Being |url=https://imprintnews.org/child-welfare-2/lack-of-school-nurses-may-endanger-student-well-being/21055 |access-date=2025-04-07 |website=The Imprint |language=en-US}}

These challenges may increase for menstruating adolescents in low-income areas, where there are inadequate bathroom conditions––poor privacy measures and menstrual product disposal options.

Several studies in the United States indicate that although many boys express curiosity about the developmental changes girls experience, they are frequently excluded from menstruation-related education both at home and in school––thus, increasing their likelihood of adopting common misconceptions and teasing behavior toward their female peers.{{Cite journal |last1=Chang |first1=Yu-Ting |last2=Hayter |first2=Mark |last3=Lin |first3=Mei-Ling |date=2012 |title=Pubescent male students' attitudes towards menstruation in Taiwan: implications for reproductive health education and school nursing practice |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2702.2011.03700.x |journal=Journal of Clinical Nursing |language=en |volume=21 |issue=3–4 |pages=513–521 |doi=10.1111/j.1365-2702.2011.03700.x |issn=1365-2702}}{{Cite journal |last1=Peranovic |first1=Tamara |last2=Bentley |first2=Brenda |date=2017-07-01 |title=Men and Menstruation: A Qualitative Exploration of Beliefs, Attitudes and Experiences |url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11199-016-0701-3 |journal=Sex Roles |language=en |volume=77 |issue=1 |pages=113–124 |doi=10.1007/s11199-016-0701-3 |issn=1573-2762}}

In the workplace, menstruation remains a stigmatized topic. Employees may feel compelled to hide menstrual symptoms or avoid discussing their needs due to perceptions that menstruation is unprofessional. Shift workers in industries like healthcare and manufacturing are especially vulnerable. A 2023 meta-analysis found that women working night or rotating shifts had significantly higher rates of menstrual disorders, dysmenorrhea, and early menopause due to circadian rhythm disruption.{{Cite journal |last1=Hu |first1=Fengying |last2=Wu |first2=Cuiyun |last3=Jia |first3=Yunfei |last4=Zhen |first4=Hualong |last5=Cheng |first5=Hengshun |last6=Zhang |first6=Fan |last7=Wang |first7=Liuqing |last8=Jiang |first8=Minmin |date=2023-12-01 |title=Shift work and menstruation: A meta-analysis study |journal=SSM - Population Health |volume=24 |pages=101542 |doi=10.1016/j.ssmph.2023.101542 |issn=2352-8273 |pmc=10632107 |pmid=37954014}}

Menstrual stigma also disproportionately affects transgender men, nonbinary individuals, and intersex people who menstruate. These groups often face additional challenges related to gender and body dysmorphia. The association of menstruation with womanhood can trigger distress among trans-masculine and nonbinary individuals, especially during puberty, when menstruation may feel in conflict with their gender identity. Many trans and nonbinary people avoid using public restrooms while menstruating due to their anxiety about trans menstrual stigma.{{Cite journal |last1=Chrisler |first1=Joan C. |last2=Gorman |first2=Jennifer A. |last3=Manion |first3=Jen |last4=Murgo |first4=Michael |last5=Barney |first5=Angela |last6=Adams-Clark |first6=Alexis |last7=Newton |first7=Jessica R. |last8=McGrath |first8=Meaghan |date=2016 |title=Queer periods: attitudes toward and experiences with menstruation in the masculine of centre and transgender community |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27212580 |journal=Culture, Health & Sexuality |volume=18 |issue=11 |pages=1238–1250 |doi=10.1080/13691058.2016.1182645 |issn=1464-5351 |pmid=27212580}} Some trans people use hormonal therapies such as testosterone to suppress menstruation, but not all have access to or desire this form of care. For those who continue to menstruate, navigating menstrual stigma in unsupportive environments can lead to psychological harm, isolation, and medical neglect.

Recent efforts to promote gender-inclusive menstrual equity—such as providing menstrual products in all-gender bathrooms and using terms like "people who menstruate"—have sought to expand awareness and reduce stigma. However, the needs of trans and nonbinary people remain under-researched and often overlooked in mainstream menstrual health discourse.

Menstrual stigma is a significant element of the broader issue of endometriosis stigma.{{cite journal | last1=Kocas | first1=H. Deniz | last2=Rubin | first2=Lisa R. | last3=Lobel | first3=Marci | title=Stigma and mental health in endometriosis | journal=European Journal of Obstetrics & Gynecology and Reproductive Biology: X | publisher=Elsevier BV | volume=19 | year=2023 | issn=2590-1613 | doi=10.1016/j.eurox.2023.100228 | page=100228| pmid=37654520 | pmc=10465859 | doi-access=free }}{{cite journal | last1=Reinhardt | first1=Anne | last2=Eitze | first2=Sarah | title=Breaking the endometriosis silence: a social norm approach to reducing menstrual stigma and policy resistance among young adults | journal=Psychology & Health | publisher=Informa UK Limited | date=2023-11-03 | issn=0887-0446 | doi=10.1080/08870446.2023.2277838 | pages=1–23| pmid=37921431 | s2cid=264972887 | doi-access=free }} The negative attitudes toward menstruation play a pivotal role in perpetuating the stigma surrounding endometriosis. While much of the existing research on endometriosis stigma has primarily focused on menstrual pain and the associated stigma, it's crucial to recognize that chronic pain, in general, carries its own societal stigma. Considering that endometriosis involves persistent pain during menstruation, sexual activity, and pelvic symptoms, this pain-related stigma can exacerbate the overall stigma associated with endometriosis, leading to adverse mental health outcomes. Furthermore, infertility stigma is another factor contributing to the overall stigma surrounding endometriosis. Many individuals with endometriosis experience infertility issues, and this aspect of the condition can lead to feelings of depression and anxiety.{{cite journal | last1=Greil | first1=Arthur L. | last2=Slauson-Blevins | first2=Kathleen | last3=McQuillan | first3=Julia | title=The experience of infertility: a review of recent literature | journal=Sociology of Health & Illness | publisher=Wiley | volume=32 | issue=1 | year=2010 | issn=0141-9889 | doi=10.1111/j.1467-9566.2009.01213.x | pages=140–162| pmid=20003036 | s2cid=2083730 | url=https://digitalcommons.unl.edu/sociologyfacpub/102 | pmc=3383794 }}

It's important to note that stigma operates on multiple levels, including self-stigma (internalized negative attitudes), perceived stigma (how individuals believe society views them), and experienced stigma (actual instances of discrimination). These various forms of stigma have been observed to have a significant impact on the well-being of individuals living with various chronic illnesses, including endometriosis.

• Reproductive health care for incarcerated women in the United States
• Culture and menstruation
• Transgender health care
• Menstrual leave
• Endometriosis
• Dysmenorrhea
• Period poverty
• Tampon tax

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• {{Cite web |title=Menstrual Euphemisms by language |url=https://helloclue.com/articles/culture/top-euphemisms-for-period-by-language |access-date=2023-09-14 |website=helloclue.com}}

{{Menstrual cycle}}

Category:Culture and menstruation

Category:Social stigma