miko

File:Tokyo, Meiji-jingu (6215281946).jpg, Tokyo, in 2000]]

A {{nihongo||巫女|miko}}, or shrine maiden,Groemer, 28.Aston, 101 is a young priestessNorth-China herald, 571 who works at a Shinto shrine. {{transliteration|ja|Miko}} were once likely seen as shamans,Picken, 140. but are understood in modern Japanese culture to be an institutionalizedGroemer, 29. role in daily life, trained to perform tasks ranging from sacred cleansing to performing the sacred {{transliteration|ja|Kagura}} dance.Hearn, 246

Appearance

The traditional attire of a {{transliteration|ja|miko}} is a pair of red {{nihongo||緋袴|hakama}} (divided, pleated trousers), a white {{transliteration|ja|kosode}} (a predecessor of the kimono), and some white or red hair ribbons. In Shinto, the color white symbolizes purity.{{citation needed|date=December 2011}} The garment put over the {{transliteration|ja|kosode}} during {{transliteration|ja|Kagura}} dances is called a {{nihongo||千早|chihaya}}.

Traditional {{transliteration|ja|miko}} tools include the {{nihongo3|"catalpa bow"|梓弓|Azusa Yumi}},Fairchild, 76 the {{nihongo||玉串|tamagushi}} (offertory {{Transliteration|ja|sakaki}}-tree branches),Fairchild, 77. and the {{nihongo3|a "supernatural box that contains dolls, animal and human skulls ... [and] Shinto prayer beads"|外法箱|gehōbako}}.Fairchild, 78

{{transliteration|ja|Miko}} also use bells, drums, candles, {{transliteration|ja|gohei}}, and bowls of rice in ceremonies.

Definition

File:Kamogawa ceremony 02.jpg in 2006]]

File:Miko vestal virgin robes, fan and torikabuto ( phoenix hat ).jpg

File:Portret van een onbekende vrouw met een waaier The Miko (Vestal Virgin) (titel op object), RP-F-2001-7-1570-30.jpg

The Japanese words {{transliteration|ja|miko}} and {{transliteration|ja|fujo}} ("female shaman" and "shrine maiden" respectively)Kokugo Dai Jiten Dictionary, Revised edition, Shogakukan, 1988. are usually written {{lang|ja|巫女}} as a compound of the kanji {{lang|ja|巫}} ("shaman"), and {{lang|ja|女}} ("woman"). {{Transliteration|ja|Miko}} was archaically written {{lang|ja|神子}} ("kami" + "child") and {{lang|ja|巫子}} ("shaman child").

The term is not to be confused with {{transliteration|ja|miko}} meaning "prince", "princess" or "duke", and which is otherwise variously spelt {{lang|ja|御子}} ("august child"), {{lang|ja|皇子}} ("imperial child"), {{lang|ja|皇女}} ("imperial daughter", also pronounced {{transliteration|ja|himemiko}}), {{lang|ja|親王}} ("prince") or {{lang|ja|王}} ("king", "prince" or "duke"). These spellings of {{transliteration|ja|miko}} were commonly used in the titles of ancient Japanese nobles, such as Prince Kusakabe ({{lang|ja|草壁皇子}}, {{transliteration|ja|Kusakabe no Miko}} or {{transliteration|ja|Kusakabe no Ōji}}).

{{transliteration|ja|Miko}} once performed spirit possession and {{transliteration|ja|takusen}} (whereby the possessed person serves as a "medium" ({{transliteration|ja|yorimashi}}) to communicate the divine will or message of that Kami or spirit; also included in the category of {{transliteration|ja|takusen}} is "dream revelation" ({{transliteration|ja|mukoku}}), in which a {{transliteration|ja|kami}} appears in a dream to communicate its will) as vocational functions in their service to shrines. As time passed, they left the shrines and began working independently in secular society. In addition to a medium or a {{transliteration|ja|miko}} (or a {{transliteration|ja|geki}}, a male shaman), the site of a {{transliteration|ja|takusen}} may occasionally also be attended by a {{transliteration|ja|sayaniwa}}{{cite web |url=http://eos.kokugakuin.ac.jp/modules/xwords/entry.php?entryID=1315 |title=Encyclopedia of Shinto - Home : Divination and Supplication : Saniwa |access-date=2013-06-02 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150510061632/http://eos.kokugakuin.ac.jp/modules/xwords/entry.php?entryID=1315 |archive-date=2015-05-10 }} who interprets the words of the possessed person to make them comprehensible to other people present. {{transliteration|ja|Kamigakari}} and {{transliteration|ja|takusen}}{{cite web |url=http://eos.kokugakuin.ac.jp/modules/xwords/entry.php?entryID=1308 |title=Encyclopedia of Shinto - Home : Divination and Supplication : Kamigakari, takusen |access-date=2013-06-02 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111030134405/http://eos.kokugakuin.ac.jp/modules/xwords/entry.php?entryID=1308 |archive-date=2011-10-30 }} may be passive, when a person speaks after suddenly becoming involuntarily possessed or has a dream revelation; they can also be active, when spirit possession is induced in a specific person to ascertain the divine will or gain a divine revelation.

{{transliteration|ja|Miko}} are known by many names; Fairchild lists 26 terms for "shrine-attached {{transliteration|ja|Miko}}"Fairchild, 119 and 43 for "non-shrine-attached {{transliteration|ja|Miko}}".Fairchild, 120. Other names are {{nihongo3|"shaman child"|巫子|ichiko}}, or {{nihongo3|"market/town child"|巫子}} (both likely {{transliteration|ja|ateji}} meaning "female medium; fortuneteller"), and {{nihongo3|meaning "spirit go-between, medium"|霊媒|reibai}}.

In English, the word is often translated as "shrine maiden", though freer renderings often simply use the phrase "female shaman" ({{transliteration|ja|shamanka}}){{citation needed|date=December 2011}} or, as Lafcadio Hearn translated it, "Divineress".Hearn, 202 Some scholars{{citation needed|date=December 2011}} prefer the transliteration {{transliteration|ja|miko}}, contrasting the Japanese Mikoism{{citation needed|date=December 2011}} with other Asian terms for female shamans.{{citation needed|date=December 2011}} As Fairchild explains:

{{blockquote|Women played an important role in a region stretching from Manchuria, China, Korea and Japan to the [Ryukyu Islands]. In Japan these women were priestesses, soothsayers, magicians, prophets and shamans in the folk religion, and they were the chief performers in organized Shinto. These women were called Miko, and the author calls the complex "Mikoism" for lack of a suitable English word.Fairchild, 57.}}The word can also mean "shrine virgin".{{Cite web |last=Cartwright |first=Mark |date=2017-04-03 |title=Shinto |url=https://www.worldhistory.org/Shinto/ |access-date=2023-09-19 |website=World History Encyclopedia |language=en}}

Mikoism

=History=

File:JP-tokio-meiji-mikos.jpg}} and red {{transliteration|ja|hakama}}. The hair is tied in a ponytail with a white and red hair ribbon.]]

{{Transliteration|ja|Miko}} traditions date back to the prehistoric Jōmon period of Japan, when female shamans{{citation needed|date=December 2011}} would go into "trances and convey the words of the gods"{{citation needed|date=December 2011}} (the {{Transliteration|ja|kami}}), an act comparable with "the pythia or sibyl in Ancient Greece."Blacker, 104.

The earliest record of anything resembling the term {{Transliteration|ja|miko}} is of the Chinese reference to Himiko, Japan's earliest substantiated historical reference (not legendary); however, it is completely unknown whether Himiko was a {{Transliteration|ja|miko}}, or even if {{Transliteration|ja|miko}} existed in those days.

The early {{Transliteration|ja|miko}} were important social figures{{citation needed|date=December 2011}} who were "associated with the ruling class".{{citation needed|date=December 2011}} "In addition to her ritual performances of ecstatic trance", writes Kuly, "[the {{Transliteration|ja|miko}}] performed a variety of religious and political functions".Kuly, 199. One traditional school of {{Transliteration|ja|miko}}, Kuly adds, "claimed to descend from the Goddess Uzume".Kuly, 198.

During the Nara period (710–794) and Heian period (794–1185), government officials tried to control {{Transliteration|ja|miko}} practices. As Fairchild notes:

In 780 A.D. and in 807 A.D. official bulls against the practice of ecstasy outside of the authority of the shrines were published. These bulls were not only aimed at ecstasy, but were aimed at magicians, priests, sorcerers, etc. It was an attempt to gain complete control, while at the same time it aimed at eradicating abuses which were occurring.Fairchild, 53

During the feudal Kamakura period (1185–1333) when Japan was controlled by warring {{Transliteration|ja|shōgun}} states:

[T]he {{Transliteration|ja|miko}} was forced into a state of mendicancy as the shrines and temples that provided her with a livelihood fell into bankruptcy. Disassociated from a religious context, her performance moved further away from a religious milieu and more toward one of a non-ecclesiastical nature. The travelling {{Transliteration|ja|miko}}, known as the {{Transliteration|ja|aruki miko}}, became associated with prostitution. ... [T]he {{Transliteration|ja|miko}}'s stature as a woman close to the {{Transliteration|ja|kami}} diminished as a patriarchal, militaristic society took over.

During the Edo period (1603–1868), writes Groemer, "the organizational structures and arts practiced by female shamans in eastern Japan underwent significant transformations".Groemer, 46. Though in the Meiji period (1868–1912), many shamanistic practices were outlawed:

After 1867 the Meiji government's desire to create a form of state Shinto headed by the emperor—the shaman-in-chief of the nation—meant that Shinto needed to be segregated from both Buddhism and folk-religious beliefs. As a result, official discourse increasingly repeated negative views of Miko and their institutions.Groemer, 44.

There was an edict called {{nihongo||巫女禁断令|Miko Kindanrei}} enforced by security forces loyal to Imperial forces, forbidding all spiritual practices by {{Transliteration|ja|miko}}, issued in 1873, by the {{nihongo|Religious Affairs Department|教部}}.{{cite web|url=http://d.hatena.ne.jp/mayumi_charron/touch/searchdiary?word=*%255B%25BF%25C0%25C6%25BB+%25D6%25E0%25BD%25F7%255D|title=『*%5B%BF%C0%C6%BB %D6%E0%BD%F7%5D』の検索結果 - 耀姫の日記|website=d.hatena.ne.jp|date=14 January 2011 |access-date=24 April 2018|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180424204924/http://d.hatena.ne.jp/mayumi_charron/touch/searchdiary?word=*%255B%25BF%25C0%25C6%25BB+%25D6%25E0%25BD%25F7%255D|archive-date=24 April 2018}}

The Shinto {{Transliteration|ja|kagura}} dance ceremony, which originated with "ritual dancing to convey divine oracles",{{citation needed|date=December 2011}} has been transformed in the 20th century into a popular ceremonial dance called {{nihongo||巫女舞|Miko-mai}}{{citation needed|date=December 2011}} or {{nihongo||巫女神楽|Miko-kagura}}.{{citation needed|date=December 2011}}

=Traditional training=

File:Tamagushi on an an.jpg (traditional, ritual bundle of Sakaki (Cleyera japonica) twigs, of the type used by miko)]]

The position of a shaman passed from generation to generation, but sometimes someone not directly descended from a shaman went voluntarily into training or was appointed by the village chieftains. To achieve this, such a person had to have some potential.

To become a shaman, the girl (still at a young age, mostly after the start of the menstruation cycle) had to undergo very intensive training specific to the {{Transliteration|ja|kuchiyose miko}}.Ichirō Hōri: Japanese Journal of Religious Studies{{volume needed|date=February 2018}} An acknowledged elder shaman, who could be a family member (like an aunt) or a member of the tribe, would teach the girl in training the techniques required to be in control of her trance state. This would be done by rituals including washings with cold water, regular purifying, abstinence and the observation of the common taboos like death, illness and blood. She would also study how to communicate with {{Transliteration|ja|kami}} and spirits of the deceased, as a medium, by being possessed by those spirits. This was achieved by chanting and dancing, thus therefore the girl was taught melodies and intonations that were used in songs, prayers and magical formulas, supported by drum and rattlers.

Other attributes used for rituals were mirrors (to attract the {{Transliteration|ja|kami}}) and swords (katana). She also needed the knowledge of the several names of the {{Transliteration|ja|kami}} that were important for her village, as well as their function. Finally she learned a secret language, only known by insiders (other shamans of the tribe) and so discovered the secrets of fortune-telling and magical formulas.{{citation needed|date=September 2021}}

After the training, which could take three to seven years, the girl would get her initiation rite to become a real shaman. This mystic ceremony was witnessed by her mentor, other elders and fellow shamans. The girl wore a white shroud as a symbol for the end of her previous life. The elders began chanting and after a while the girl started to shiver. Next, her mentor would ask the girl which {{Transliteration|ja|kami}} had possessed her and therefore be the one she would serve. As soon as she answered, the mentor would throw a rice cake into her face, causing the girl to faint.{{cite book|last1=Hori|first1=Ichiro|title=Folk religion in Japan : continuity and change|date=1968|publisher=Univ. of Chicago Press|location=Chicago|isbn=0226353346|page=[https://archive.org/details/folkreligioninja00hori/page/204 204]|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/folkreligioninja00hori/page/204}} The elders would bring the girl to a warm bed and keep her warm until she woke up. When the whole ordeal was over and the girl had woken up, she was permitted to wear a coloured wedding dress and perform the corresponding tradition of the wedding toast.{{citation needed|date=September 2021}}

The resemblance of a wedding ceremony as the initiation rite suggests that the trainee, still a virgin, had become the bride of the {{Transliteration|ja|kami}} she served (called a {{nihongo||玉依姫|Tamayori Hime}}). During her trance, said {{Transliteration|ja|kami}} had requested the girl to his shrine. In some areas of Japan she had to bring a pot filled with rice ({{Transliteration|ja|meshibitsu}}) and a pan. An old, long-abandoned practice saw {{Transliteration|ja|miko}} engage in sexual intercourse with a {{Transliteration|ja|kannushi}}, who would represent the {{Transliteration|ja|kami}}. Any resulting child would be considered the {{nihongo|child of the {{Transliteration|ja|kami}}|御子神|mikogami}}.

In some cases, girls or women were visited at night by a {{nihongo|travelling spirit|稀人|marebito}}. After this visit, the woman announced to the public her new position of being possessed by a {{Transliteration|ja|kami}} by placing a white-feathered arrow on the roof of her house.

Contemporary {{Transliteration|ja|miko}}

File:Miko at the Ikuta Shrine.jpg]]

Contemporary {{Transliteration|ja|miko}} are often seen at Shinto shrines, where they assist with shrine functions, perform ceremonial dances, offer {{Transliteration|ja|omikuji}} fortune telling, sell souvenirs, and assist a {{Transliteration|ja|kannushi}} in Shinto rites. Kuly describes the contemporary {{Transliteration|ja|miko}} as: "A far distant relative of her premodern shamanic sister, she is most probably a university student collecting a modest wage in this part-time position."Kuly, 21.

The ethnologist Kunio Yanagita (1875–1962), who first studied Japanese female shamans, differentiated them into {{nihongo3|"shrine shamans"|神社巫女|jinja miko}} who dance with bells and participate in {{nihongo3|"boiling water"|湯立て|yudate}} rituals, {{nihongo3|"spirit medium shamans"|ロ寄せ巫女|kuchiyose miko}} who speak on behalf of the deceased, and {{nihongo3|"god women"|神姥|kami uba}} who engage in cult worship and invocations (for instance, the Tenrikyo founder Nakayama Miki).Kawamura, 258-259.

Researchers have further categorized contemporary {{Transliteration|ja|miko}} in terms of their diverse traditions and practices. Such categorizations include blind {{Transliteration|ja|itako}} (concentrated in north and east Japan), mostly-blind {{Transliteration|ja|okamin}} (north and east Japan), blind {{Transliteration|ja|waka}} or {{Transliteration|ja|owaka}} (northeastern Japan), {{Transliteration|ja|moriko}} (north and east of Tokyo), {{Transliteration|ja|nono}} (central Japan), blind {{Transliteration|ja|zatokaka}} (northwest Japan), {{Transliteration|ja|sasa hataki}} who tap {{Transliteration|ja|sasa}} ("bamboo grass") on their faces (northeast of Tokyo), plus family and village organizations.Fairchild, 62–85. Others have divided miko or fujo by blindness between blind {{nihongo3|"invocation specialist"|尾上屋|ogamiya}} or {{Transliteration|ja|ogamisama}} who perform {{Transliteration|ja|kuchiyose}} and spirit mediumship and sighted {{Transliteration|ja|miko}} or {{Transliteration|ja|kamisama}} who perform divination and invocations.Kawamura, 263–264.

In the eclectic Shugendō religion, priests who practiced ecstasy often married {{Transliteration|ja|miko}}.Fairchild 1962:55. Many scholars identify shamanic {{Transliteration|ja|miko}} characteristics in {{Transliteration|ja|Shinshūkyō}} ("New Religions") such as Sukyo Mahikari, Ōmoto, and Shinmeiaishinkai.Blacker, 140.Hardacre.Kuly, 25.

Citations

General and cited references

Aston, William George (1905). Shinto: way of the gods. Longmans, Green, and Co.
Blacker, Carmen (1975. The Catalpa Bow: A Study of Shamanistic Practices in Japan. London: George Allen & Unwin.)
Fairchild, William P. (1962). [https://nirc.nanzan-u.ac.jp/nfile/457 "Shamanism in Japan"], Folklore Studies 21:1–122.
Folklore Society, The (1899). Folklore, Volume 10. Great Britain.
Groemer, Gerald (2007). [https://nirc.nanzan-u.ac.jp/nfile/750 "Female Shamans in Eastern Japan during the Edo Period"], Asian Folklore Studies 66:27–53.
Hardacre, Helen (1996). "Shinmeiaishinkai and the Study of Shamanism in Contemporary Japanese Life", in Religion in Japan, ed. by P.F. Kornicki and I.J. McMullen, Cambridge University Press, pp. 198–219.
Hearn, Lafcadio (1894). Glimpses of Unfamiliar Japan Volume 1. Houghton, Mifflin and Company.
Hori, Ichiro (1968). Folk Religion in Japan: Continuity and Change. Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Press. {{ISBN|0226353346}}.
Kawamura Kunimitsu (2003). [http://nirc.nanzan-u.ac.jp/nfile/608 "A Female Shaman's Mind and Body, and Possession"], Asian Folklore Studies 62.2:257–289.
Kuly, Lisa (2003). "[https://www.erudit.org/en/journals/ethno/2003-v25-n1-ethno557/007130ar/ Locating Transcendence in Japanese Minzoku Geinô: Yamabushi and Miko Kagura]," Ethnologies 25.1:191–208.
(1906) North-China herald and Supreme Court & consular gazette, The Volume 79. North-China Herald.
Ricci, Daniele (2012). Japanese Shamanism: trance and possession. Volume Edizioni (Kindle Edition).
Picken, Stuart D. B. (2006). The A to Z of Shinto. Scarecrow Press.
Waley, Arthur (1921). The Noh Plays of Japan.