mono- and diglycerides of fatty acids

Monoglycerides and diglycerides are types of glycerides both naturally present in food fats,{{Cite web | url = https://www.inchem.org/documents/jecfa/jecmono/v05je44.htm | title = Toxicological evaluation of some food additives including anticaking agents, antimicrobials, antioxidants, emulsifiers and thickening agents | publisher = World Health Organization }} including various seed oils;{{cite journal|last1=Flickinger|first1=Brent D.|last2=Matsuo|first2=Noboru|title=Nutritional characteristics of DAG oil|journal=Lipids|date=February 2003|volume=38|issue=2|pages=129–132|doi=10.1007/s11745-003-1042-8|pmid=12733744|s2cid=4061326}} however, their concentration is usually low and industrial production is primarily achieved by a glycerolysis reaction between triglycerides (fats/oils) and glycerol,{{cite journal|last1=Sonntag|first1=Norman O. V.|title=Glycerolysis of fats and methyl esters — Status, review and critique|journal=Journal of the American Oil Chemists' Society|volume=59|issue=10|year=1982|pages=795A–802A|issn=0003-021X|doi=10.1007/BF02634442|s2cid=84808531}} followed by purification via solvent-free molecular distillation. The raw materials of mono- and diglycerides may be either vegetable or animal fats and oils.

E471 is mainly produced from vegetable oils (such as soybean, grapeseed, canola, sunflower, cottonseed, coconut, and palm oil) and plant pomace such as grape pomace or tomato pomace{{Cite web |title=Sources of Food Ingredients: Mono- and Diglycerides |url=https://www.foodingredientfacts.org/facts-on-food-ingredients/sources-of-food-ingredients/mono-diglycerides/ |access-date=2024-07-11 |website=Food Ingredient Facts |language=en-US}}), although animal fats are sometimes used and cannot be completely excluded as being present in the product.{{cite book|last1=Clarke|first1=Chris|title=The Science of Ice Cream|date=2012|publisher=Royal Society of Chemistry|isbn=9781849731270|page=55|quote=Mono-/diglycerides are made by partially hydrolysing vegetable fats, such as soybean oil, and palm oil. (Animal-fat-based emulsifiers are not commonly used because they are not suitable for vegetarian and certain religious diets).}} The fatty acids from each source are chemically identical.{{cite web|title=Which E-numbers and additives are from animal origin ?|url=http://www.food-info.net/uk/qa/qa-fi45.htm|website=Food-Info.net|publisher=Wageningen University|accessdate=4 September 2015|location=Netherlands|quote=Chemically the fatty acids from animal or plant origin are identical. Therefore the origin is of no importance for the function in the food. Producers thus normally choose the cheapest oils to make these fats. This is generally some vegetable oil. However, animal fats can not be excluded.}} The Vegan Society, which discourages eating animal-based foods, flags E471 as potentially animal based.{{cite web|title=Vegan Catering For All |url=https://www.vegansociety.com/sites/default/files/VeganCateringForAll.pdf|website=The Vegan Society|accessdate=4 September 2015|url-status=live|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150904134302/https://www.vegansociety.com/sites/default/files/VeganCateringForAll.pdf|archivedate=4 September 2015|page=12}}

The World Health Organization’s (WHO) report on the toxicological evaluation of mono- and diglycerides states that, “Food fats are in the main triglycerides. However, many of them have been shown to contain small amounts of diglycerides and monoglycerides. The amount present is commonly in the region of 1%. There is some evidence also that further amounts of these partial glycerides may be formed during the preparation of certain foods. Therefore, apart from any addition of these substances to food for technological purposes, they will always be present in the food as consumed.”{{Cite web |title=301. Mono- and diglycerides (WHO Food Additives Series 5) |url=https://www.inchem.org/documents/jecfa/jecmono/v05je44.htm |access-date=2024-08-05 |website=www.inchem.org}} Mono- and diglycerides may contain small amounts of trans fat.{{Cite web |title=You May Be Getting More Mono- and Diglycerides Than You Should |url=https://www.livestrong.com/article/445850-what-is-bad-about-mono-diglycerides/ |access-date=2024-07-11 |website=Livestrong.com |language=en}}{{Cite web |date=2018-05-25 |title=Monoglycerides: What are they, risks, and who should avoid them |url=https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/321912 |access-date=2024-08-05 |website=www.medicalnewstoday.com |language=en}}

Mono- and diglycerides are naturally digested as part of normal lipid metabolism (i.e., the natural digestion of dietary fats and oils).

==Effects on health==

The safety of mono- and diglycerides of fatty acids has been assessed by several regulatory authorities. The Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives (JECFA) has set an “acceptable daily intake” (ADI) as “not limited” due to the safety of these ingredients.{{Cite web |title=Toxicological evaluation of certain food additives with a review of general principles and of specifications : seventeenth report of the Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives |url=https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/9241205393 |access-date=2024-07-11 |website=www.who.int |language=en}} In 2017, the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) re-evaluated the safety of mono- and diglycerides and concluded that there is no need to establish a numerical ADI and there is no safety concern for the reported food uses.{{Cite web |date=2017-11-10 |title=Re-evaluation of mono- and di-glycerides of fatty acids (E 471) as food additives {{!}} EFSA |url=https://www.efsa.europa.eu/en/efsajournal/pub/5045 |access-date=2024-07-11 |website=www.efsa.europa.eu |language=en}}

Additionally, the Center for Science in the Public Interest, a consumer interest group that previously campaigned for the elimination of sulfite preservatives in fresh foods, as well as campaigned to label -- and eventually eliminate -- artificial trans fat found in partially hydrogenated oils) ranks mono- and diglycerides as “safe” in their Chemical Cuisine Ratings.{{Cite web |title=Mono- and diglycerides |url=https://www.cspinet.org/article/mono-and-diglycerides |access-date=2024-07-11 |website=Center for Science in the Public Interest |language=en}}

A French observational study of several food additives published in 2024 suggested a correlation but not a causation between a higher intake of E471 in highly processed foods and increased risk of cancer by 15%, particularly breast cancer (24%) and prostate cancer (46%).{{cite journal |last1=Sellem |first1=L |last2=Srour |first2=B |last3=Javaux |first3=G |last4=Chazelas |first4=E |last5=Chassaing |first5=B |last6=Viennois |first6=E |last7=Debras |first7=C |last8=Druesne-Pecollo |first8=N |last9=Esseddik |first9=Y |last10=Szabo de Edelenyi |first10=F |last11=Arnault |first11=N |last12=Agaësse |first12=C |last13=De Sa |first13=A |last14=Lutchia |first14=R |last15=Huybrechts |first15=I |last16=Scalbert |first16=A |last17=Pierre |first17=F |last18=Coumoul |first18=X |last19=Julia |first19=C |last20=Kesse-Guyot |first20=E |last21=Allès |first21=B |last22=Galan |first22=P |last23=Hercberg |first23=S |last24=Deschasaux-Tanguy |first24=M |last25=Touvier |first25=M |title=Food additive emulsifiers and cancer risk: Results from the French prospective NutriNet-Santé cohort. |journal=PLOS Medicine |date=February 2024 |volume=21 |issue=2 |pages=e1004338 |doi=10.1371/journal.pmed.1004338 |doi-access=free |pmid=38349899 |pmc=10863884 }} The study also notes, that “Cancer is a multifactorial pathology, thus as expected, one specific nutritional factor (here, exposure to an emulsifier) does not drastically increase absolute risks per se.”

In the late 2010s, the company Apeel Sciences entered the market in parts of South America, China, and Japan with monoacylglycerols as an alternative to fruit waxing and plastic films to prevent withering and conserving fruit and vegetables for transport and storage.{{Cite web |title=GRAS notification for mixture of monoacylglycerides |url=https://www.fda.gov/media/99218/download |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201023221549/https://www.fda.gov/media/99218/download |archive-date=23 October 2020 |website=Food and Drug Administration}}{{cite web | last=McGrath | first=Maggie | title=Fruit's Fountain Of Youth: Apeel's Edible Produce Coating Could Slay Food Waste And Save Supermarkets Billions | website=Forbes | date=2018-09-06 | url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/maggiemcgrath/2018/09/06/fruits-fountain-of-youth-apeels-edible-produce-coating-could-slay-food-waste-and-save-supermarkets-billions/ | access-date=2019-07-24}}

• Polyglycerol polyricinoleate
• Monoglyceride
• Diglyceride

{{Reflist|2}}

• [http://www.food-info.net/uk/e/e471.htm Food-Info.net: E-numbers: E471]

{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2019}}

Category:Food additives

Category:Fatty acid esters

Category:E-number additives

Category:Glycerol esters