nuclear power in Switzerland

Switzerland ratified the Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT) in March 1977, committing to peaceful nuclear energy use and subjecting its nuclear materials to international safeguards under the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA). The Corresponding Safeguards Agreement (CSA) was ratified in September 1978, followed by the Additional Protocol (AP) in 2005, which introduced further obligations. This legal framework was integrated into Swiss law through the Safeguards Ordinance (SaO) in February 2005, alongside the Nuclear Energy Act (NEA) and the Nuclear Energy Ordinance (NEO).{{Cite web |last=SFOE |first=Swiss Federal Office of Energy |title=Safeguards in Switzerland |url=https://www.bfe.admin.ch/bfe/en/home/versorgung/aufsicht-und-sicherheit/non-proliferation/safeguards/safeguards-schweiz.html |access-date=2024-02-19 |website=www.bfe.admin.ch |language=en}}

Facilities under safeguards in Switzerland include nuclear power plants such as Beznau, Gösgen, and Leibstadt, along with the Mühleberg plant, currently undergoing decommissioning. Interim storage facilities for radioactive waste under safeguards are located at Beznau and in Würenlingen. Other safeguarded sites include CERN in Geneva, the research reactor CROCUS in Lausanne, various facilities at the Paul Scherrer Institute in Villigen, and the research reactor PROTEUS, which is also undergoing decommissioning.{{Cite web |last=SFOE |first=Swiss Federal Office of Energy |title=Facilities and Locations Outside Facilities subject to safeguards |url=https://www.bfe.admin.ch/bfe/en/home/versorgung/aufsicht-und-sicherheit/non-proliferation/safeguards/facilities-und-locations-outside-facilities.html |access-date=2024-02-19 |website=www.bfe.admin.ch |language=en}}

{{see also|List of commercial nuclear reactors#Switzerland}}

File:Kkw goesgen (smial).jpg (MW) Gösgen nuclear power plant]]

Switzerland has three nuclear power plants with four reactors in operation as of late December, 2019:

(Beznau and Gösgen provide district heating in addition to power production){{cite web |url=http://www.world-nuclear.org/info/Country-Profiles/Countries-O-S/Switzerland/#.UXcZG7Xvvfc |title=Nuclear Power in Switzerland |publisher=World Nuclear Association |date=January 2015 |access-date=23 April 2013 |archive-date=16 January 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160116151413/http://www.world-nuclear.org/info/Country-Profiles/Countries-O-S/Switzerland/#.UXcZG7Xvvfc |url-status=dead }}{{Cite journal|last=Wildi|first=Tobias|date=2003|title=Der Traum vom eigenen Reaktor: Die schweizerische Atomtechnologieentwicklung 1945-1969|trans-title=The Dream of Your Own Reactor: Swiss Nuclear Technology Development 1945-1969|url=https://www.research-collection.ethz.ch/handle/20.500.11850/88080|journal=Interferenzen|language=de|volume=4|doi=10.3929/ethz-a-004459704|issn=1661-8890}}

• Beznau 1 (1969) and Beznau 2 (1972) (PWR) – 365 MWe each

: Plant safety (each unit): Double containment, large dry; 3 lines safety injection, high and low pressure; 3 lines emergency feedwater; part of these ECCS systems in a bunkered building; ability to connect external water sources

: In 2015, concerns over reactor pressure vessel quality at Beznau reactors delayed unit 1's restart, while unit 2 resumed operations in December. Operated by Axpo, both units underwent checks and received a CHF 700 million investment for 60-year lifespans. The safety case for unit 1, submitted to the Swiss Federal Nuclear Safety Inspectorate (ENSI) in November 2016, confirmed safety until 2030, with restart approval in March 2018.

• Gösgen (KKG) (1979) (PWR) – 970 MWe

: Plant safety: Double containment, large dry; 4 lines for high and low-pressure safety injection (50% each); 4 lines emergency feedwater (50% each); 2 additional lines emergency feedwater; part of these ECCS systems bunkered; ability to connect external water sources

• Leibstadt (KKL) (1984) (BWR) – 1,165 MWe

: Safety: Double containment (with additional wetwell), pressure suppression (4000 m³ water pool); 4 lines (50% each) low pressure injection (with 2 lines RHR), 2 diverse lines high pressure injection; 1 additional line with 2 pumps emergency injection (with 1 line RHR); nearly all the ECCS systems bunkered; ability to connect external water sources.

The Beznau reactors are owned by the Axpo Holding, that also control major parts of Leibstadt. Alpiq owns 40% of Gösgen and 27.4% of Leibstadt.

In May 2017, Switzerland voted to phase out nuclear power in the country.{{Cite news|date=2017-05-21|title=Swiss vote to phase out nuclear power|language=en-GB|work=BBC News|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-39994599|access-date=2020-06-08}} A timetable for the phase out of nuclear power plants has not been set.{{Cite news|date=2016-11-27|title=Swiss vote against faster nuclear phaseout|language=en-GB|work=BBC News|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-38120559|access-date=2020-06-08}} The cost of decommissioning and waste management has been estimated at USD24.7 billion.{{Cite web|date=November 8, 2019|title=Swiss operators count cost of decommissioning reform: Waste & Recycling|url=https://world-nuclear-news.org/Articles/Swiss-operators-count-cost-of-decommissioning-refo|access-date=2020-06-08|website=World Nuclear News}}

• Lucens (1968) (GCHWR) – 6 MWe

:The Lucens experimental reactor power plant was opened in 1962.{{Cite web|url=https://www.swissinfo.ch/eng/radioactive_historic-nuclear-accident-dashed-swiss-atomic-dreams/44696398|title=Historic nuclear accident dashed Swiss atomic dreams|date=21 January 2019|website=SWI swissinfo.ch|language=en|access-date=2019-03-25}} It housed an experimental power reactor, heavy-water moderated and cooled by carbon dioxide. It has been shut down since 1969 after a partial core meltdown. The site has been decontaminated and decommissioned ({{small|location: {{coord|46.692778|N|6.827500|E|region:CH-VD_type:landmark|name=Lucens site}}}}). The meltdown is considered the worst nuclear meltdown in Switzerland's history.

• Mühleberg (KKM) (1972-2019) (BWR) – 355 MWe

:Shut down on 20 December 2019 and being prepared for nuclear decommissioning. The Mühleberg reactor is owned by BKW (Bernische Kraftwerke AG), majority-owned by the canton of Berne. Plant safety: Double containment, pressure suppression (torus, with 2200 m³ water pool); 4 lines low pressure core spray; 4 lines RHR (torus cooling); 2 turbine-driven HP systems; part of the ECCS systems bunkered; ability to connect external water sources.

:In a 2023 report from the World Nuclear Association, the BKW is underway with the decommissioning of the Mühleberg BWR plant. The Federal Department of Environment, Transport, Energy, and Communication issued a decommissioning order in September 2020. Costing approximately 800 million Swiss Francs, the process is expected to conclude by 2031, with site relinquishment by 2034. An additional 1.3 billion Swiss Francs are allocated for waste disposal by around 2040. BKW currently holds 930 million Swiss Francs in its decommissioning fund.

:{{Citations needed|section|date=February 2024}}

File:Crocus-p1020484.jpg reactor of the École polytechnique fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL)]]

• SAPHIR

: The reactors that became known as SAPHIR was a 10–100 kW-range swimming-pool reactor of demonstration brought to Switzerland by the U.S. delegation to the First Conference on the Peaceful Uses of Atomic Energy that took place in Geneva in August 1955. It was the first reactor ever shown in operation to the public, worldwide. After the conference the reactor was purchased by the Swiss government on behalf of Reaktor AG, a consortium interested in the development of nuclear energy in Switzerland. The reactor was moved to Würenlingen on the location of the future Paul Scherrer Institut and received its name, SAPHIR, on 17 May 1957. (The name of the reactor was inspired by the color of the Cherenkov radiation which was visible when the reactor was in operation.)

: SAPHIR remained operational until its permanent shutdown in 1993.{{Cite web |title=Switzerland 2021 |url=https://www-pub.iaea.org/MTCD/Publications/PDF/CNPP-2021/countryprofiles/Switzerland/Switzerland.htm |access-date=2024-02-18 |website=www-pub.iaea.org}}

• University of Geneva AGN-201-P reactor

: The University of Geneva acquired a 20 W water-moderated and graphite-reflected research reactor fueled by 20%-enriched Uranium from Aerojet General Nucleonics (AGN) in 1958. It was operated mostly as a teaching reactor until 1989, when it was shut down and decommissioned.

• University of Basel AGN-211-P reactor

: The University of Basel acquired the AGN-211-P reactor presented at the 1958 World Exposition in Brussels, Belgium. It was a 2 kW water-moderated reactor fueled with high-enriched uranium and operated from 1959 to 2013 as a teaching and experimental reactor, used amongst other things for neutron activation analysis.

: The research reactor at the Institute of Physics ceased operations in 2013 and was defueled in 2015. Plans were made to decommission the reactor by 2020.

• DIORIT

: A small heavy water-cooled and -moderated research reactor, operated 1960 to 1977 at the former Federal Institute for Reactor Research (now Paul Scherrer Institut). There was also, in the context of Cold War, the theoretical idea of producing weapons-grade plutonium in it, besides its research purpose. It was also the first reactor to be entirely designed and built in Switzerland.

: DIORIT was permanently shut down in 1977, and by the conclusion of 2003, all radioactive materials had been cleared from the reactor facility.

• PROTEUS

: PROTEUS was a zero-power research reactor operated from 1968 to 2011 at what is now the Paul Scherrer Institute, Würenlingen. Its peculiarity was that its core was composed of a hollow cavity whose configuration could be changed by filling it with very diverse types of nuclear fuels, including sub-critical assemblies. It was otherwise composed of a graphite reflector and driver containing 5%-enriched uranium dioxide fuel rods. This flexibility led it to be used in four major experimental programs exploring varied reactor designs such as gas-cooled fast reactors, pebble-bed reactors, high-conversion light-water reactors and finally configurations employing real spent nuclear fuel from Swiss nuclear power plants.

: In April 2013, the Paul Scherrer Institute applied for the decommissioning of its Proteus research reactor, receiving approval from ENSI in 2016.

• CROCUS

: It is a zero-power (licensed to 100 W max power) LWR used for teaching at the École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL). CROCUS is a critical assembly, built in part from the elements of a dismantled subcritical assembly: Cactus. The name of the latter originated for the numerous instrumentation bars that came out of the core. CROCUS is another name in the XXXus series for nuclear installations at EPFL, e.g. the D-T nuclear fusion facility: Lotus. ({{small|Location: {{coord|46.521238|N|6.570361|E|type:landmark_region:CH-VD|name=Crocus reactor}}}}).

: The CROCUS reactor at EPFL became the only remaining research reactor in Switzerland. Despite its modest power capacity of 100 W, it has been instrumental in training nuclear engineers and preserving expertise in the field.

{{See also|Geology of the Alps}}

Extending across the north and south side of the Alps, Switzerland lies at the junction of the Apulian and Eurasian tectonic plates, and there are many active seismic areas under the mountains that show that stresses continue to be released along deep fault lines. The 1356 Basel earthquake is the most significant seismological event to have occurred in Central Europe in recorded history"The most damaging intra-plate earthquake known to have occurred in central Europe", according to [http://www.rms.com/publications/BaselReport_650year_retrospective.pdf (Risk Management Solutions) 1356 Basel Earthquake: 650-year Retrospective, 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120229131725/http://www.rms.com/publications/BaselReport_650year_retrospective.pdf |date=29 February 2012 }}. and may have had a M_w magnitude as strong as 7.1.{{cite web|url=http://www.kantonslabor-bs.ch/files/presse/93_3_Expertise-Fessenheim-f.pdf |title=Centrale Nucléaire de Fessenheim : appréciation du risque sismique |publisher=RÉSONANCE Ingénieurs-Conseils SA |date=2007-09-05 |access-date=2011-03-30 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110720000723/http://www.kantonslabor-bs.ch/files/presse/93_3_Expertise-Fessenheim-f.pdf |archive-date=20 July 2011 }}

Between 2002 and 2004 a major study was conducted to assess the seismic risk to Swiss nuclear power plants. The PEGASOS study, which cost around 10 million Swiss Francs (approximately $11 million) and which was conducted by 21 European experts with American involvement, concluded that the earthquake risk in Switzerland is twice as large as had been previously thought.{{cite web|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/mobile/world-europe-12822969 |title=BBC News – Swiss search for strategy on nuclear |publisher=Bbc.co.uk |date=2011-03-22 |access-date=2015-02-17}}

In 2011, following the nuclear emergencies at Japan's Fukushima I Nuclear Power Plant and other nuclear facilities Swiss Federal Councilor Doris Leuthard announced on 14 March a freeze in the authorization procedures for three new nuclear power plants (see Politics), and ordered a safety review of the country's existing plants.{{cite web |author=Swiss Federal Council |url=http://www.uvek.admin.ch/dokumentation/00474/00492/index.html?lang=fr&msg-id=38236 |title=Energy Policy: The Federal Council orders a revision of decision processes after Fukushima (in French) |publisher=Swiss Federal Council |access-date=25 March 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110723090646/http://www.uvek.admin.ch/dokumentation/00474/00492/index.html?lang=fr&msg-id=38236 |archive-date=23 July 2011 }}

There was also concern in Switzerland over the seismic risks of the Fessenheim Nuclear Power Plant, located in France approximately {{convert|40|km|mi|abbr=on}} from the Swiss border. Following Fukushima the Swiss cantons of Basel-Stadt, Basel-Landschaft and Jura asked the French government to suspend the operation of Fessenheim while undertaking a safety review based on the lessons learned from Japan.{{cite web |url=http://fr.news.yahoo.com/3/20110330/twl-suisse-france-nucleaire-fessenheim-0ef7422.html |title=Yahoo Actualités – Toute l'actualité en France et dans le monde |publisher=Fr.news.yahoo.com |date=2011-04-20 |access-date=2015-02-17 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110403031024/http://fr.news.yahoo.com/3/20110330/twl-suisse-france-nucleaire-fessenheim-0ef7422.html |archive-date=3 April 2011 }} On 6 April 2011, the Grand Council of Basel-Stadt went further and voted for the plant to be closed.{{cite web|url=http://www.lematin.ch/actu/suisse/grand-conseil-bale-ville-exige-arret-fessenheim-400877 |title=Le Matin, l'actualité en direct: sports, people, politique, économie, multimédia |publisher=Lematin.ch |access-date=2015-02-17}} French President Emmanuel Macron announced in November 2018 the closure of Fessenheim's reactors, scheduled for 2020.{{Cite web|url=https://www.powermag.com/in-energy-policy-pivot-france-will-shutter-14-nuclear-reactors/|title=In Energy Policy Pivot, France Will Shutter 14 Nuclear Reactors|last=Patel|first=Sonal|date=2018-11-29|website=POWER Magazine|language=en-US|access-date=2019-03-25}}{{Cite web|url=https://phys.org/news/2018-11-france-nuclear-reactors-macron.html|title=France to close 14 nuclear reactors by 2035: Macron|date=27 November 2018|website=phys.org|language=en-us|access-date=2019-03-25}}

Radioactive waste from nuclear power plants is in the tens of thousand tons in Switzerland.{{Cite web|url=https://www.swissinfo.ch/eng/sci-tech/burying-the-nuclear-waste-problem/31019390|title=Burying the nuclear waste problem|last=Miserez|first=Marc-André|date=30 August 2011|website=SWI swissinfo.ch|language=en|access-date=2019-03-25}} Its management is the responsibility of the producer.{{Cite web|url=https://www.swissinfo.ch/eng/waste-storage_radioactive-waste--japan-learns-from-switzerland-s-mistakes/44812352|title=Radioactive waste: Japan learns from Switzerland's mistakes|last1=Uehara|first1=Akiko|last2=Jorio|first2=Luigi|date=11 March 2019|website=SWI swissinfo.ch|language=en|access-date=2019-03-25}} Up until 2006, processing of nuclear waste was mostly done overseas.{{Cite web|url=http://www.world-nuclear-news.org/Articles/First-permits-issued-for-Swiss-exploratory-borehol|title=First permits issued for Swiss exploratory boreholes|date=21 August 2018|website=World Nuclear News|access-date=2019-03-25}} A 10-year moratorium on its export was issued in 2006. Radioactive waste from nuclear power plants in Switzerland is stored on surface sites (mostly in the ZWILAG-building). Plans are underway to move the waste to permanent sites underground.{{Cite web|url=http://www.world-nuclear-news.org/Articles/Swiss-repository-site-search-moves-to-final-stage|title=Swiss repository site search moves to final stage|date=23 November 2018|website=World Nuclear News|access-date=2019-03-25}}

Switzerland's radioactive waste management is overseen by Zwilag, a company owned by the four Swiss nuclear utilities. Its central interim dry cask storage facility, ZZL, has been operational since 2001 in Wuerenlingen. Until 2006, Swiss utilities sent waste for reprocessing abroad but discontinued this practice due to regulatory changes. Currently, used fuel is either stored at reactors or transported to Zwilag ZZL.

{{See also|Anti-nuclear movement in Switzerland}}

In Switzerland there have been many referendums on the topic of nuclear energy, beginning in 1979 with an initiative for nuclear safety, which was rejected. In 1984, there was a vote on an initiative "for a future without new nuclear power stations" which was rejected with 45% of voters in favor and 55% opposed. On 23 September 1990 Switzerland had two more referendums about nuclear power. The initiative "stop the construction of nuclear power stations," which proposed a ten-year moratorium on the construction of new nuclear power plants, was passed with 54.5% to 45.5%. The initiative for a phase-out was rejected with 47.1% votes in favor against 52.9% opposed. In 2000 there was a vote on a Green Tax for support of solar energy. It was rejected with 31% in favor to 67% opposed.

On 18 May 2003, there were two referendums: "Electricity without Nuclear," asking for a decision on a nuclear power phase-out, and "Moratorium Plus," for an extension of the earlier decided moratorium on the construction of new nuclear power plants. Both were turned down. The results were: Moratorium Plus: 41.6% Yes, 58.4% No; Electricity without Nuclear: 33.7% Yes, 66.3% No.[http://www.energie-schweiz.ch/internet/00552/?lang=de] {{dead link|date=February 2015}} The program of the "Electricity without Nuclear" petition was to shut down all nuclear power stations by 2033, starting with Unit 1 and 2 of Beznau nuclear power stations, Mühleberg in 2005, Gösgen in 2009, and Leibstadt in 2014. "Moratorium Plus" was for an extension of the moratorium for another 10 years, and additionally a condition to stop the present reactors after 40 years of operation. In order to extend the 40 years by 10 more years, another referendum would have to be held. The rejection of the Moratorium Plus surprised many, since opinion polls before the referendum had shown acceptance. Reasons for the rejections in both cases were seen in the worsened economic situation.[http://www.cnfc.or.jp/plutonium/pl42/e/cnfc_report.html] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20041213102612/http://www.cnfc.or.jp/plutonium/pl42/e/cnfc_report.html|date=13 December 2004}}

On 10 June 2008, ATEL submitted an application to the Swiss Federal Office of Energy for the construction of a new plant in the Niederamt region (SO).{{cite web |url=http://www.atel.eu/en/group/news/index.jsp?news=tcm:61-48847& |title=Alpiq Group: News |publisher=Atel.eu |access-date=2015-02-17 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090205035835/http://www.atel.eu/en/group/news/index.jsp?news=tcm:61-48847& |archive-date=5 February 2009 |url-status=dead }} A further two applications were to be presented by Axpo and BKW before the end of 2008.{{cite web|author=Dienstag 17. Februar 2015 – |url=http://www.nzz.ch/nachrichten/startseite/bkw_und_axpo_planen_weiter_an_zwei_ersatz-kkw__1.755255.html |title=BKW und Axpo planen weiter an zwei Ersatz-KKW: Nachrichten |publisher=NZZ |access-date=2015-02-17}}

In May 2011, the Swiss government decided to abandon plans to build new nuclear reactors. The country's five existing reactors will be allowed to continue operating, but will not be replaced at the end of their life span. The last will go offline in 2034.{{cite news| url=https://www.nytimes.com/2011/05/26/business/global/26nuclear.html?_r=1 | work=The New York Times | first=James | last=Kanter | title=Switzerland Decides on Nuclear Phase-Out | date=2011-05-25}}

In October 2016 energy companies formally withdrew their 2008 applications to build three new power plants.{{cite news |url=http://www.swissinfo.ch/eng/defeat-conceded_request-to-build-nuclear-power-plants-withdrawn/42512788 |title=Request to build nuclear power plants withdrawn |newspaper=swissinfo.ch |date=12 October 2016 |access-date=13 October 2016}}

In November 2016, a referendum was held concerning a Green Party initiative that would have phased out all nuclear plants after a life-span of 45 years.{{cite web | last1=Moulson | first1=Geir | title=Swiss Reject Plan to Speed up Exit from Nuclear Energy | url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/europe/swiss-cast-ballots-on-referendum-on-nuclear-energy/2016/11/27/c41189c6-b479-11e6-bc2d-19b3d759cfe7_story.html | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161128135254/https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/europe/swiss-cast-ballots-on-referendum-on-nuclear-energy/2016/11/27/c41189c6-b479-11e6-bc2d-19b3d759cfe7_story.html | url-status=dead | archive-date=28 November 2016 | date=27 November 2016 | publisher=The Washington Post (from the Associated Press) | access-date=27 November 2016}} The three oldest nuclear plants (Beznau 1 and 2, and Mühleberg) would have had to be shut down as early as 2017, and every remaining plant by 2029. The initiative was rejected by 54.2% of voters.{{cite web | title=Vote Results: Nuclear Power Initiative | url=http://www.swissinfo.ch/eng/vote-results-november-27th-2016/42592236 | date=27 November 2016 | website=Swissinfo | access-date=27 November 2016}}

On 21 May 2017, 58% of Swiss voters accepted the new Energy Act establishing the energy strategy 2050 and forbidding the construction of new nuclear power plants.{{cite web|url= http://www.bfe.admin.ch/energiestrategie2050/index.html?lang=en |title= Energy strategy 2050 |publisher= Swiss Federal Office of Energy, Federal Department of Environment, Transport, Energy and Communications |access-date= 21 May 2017}} The strategy involves phasing out nuclear power, increasing reliance on hydroelectric and other renewables. Hydroelectric power currently supplies 60% of the country's electricity, while solar, wind, biomass, and geothermal generation is expected to double by 2035. No new nuclear reactors will be constructed, and existing plants will continue to operate subject to safety evaluations by ENSI.

In August 2024, the Federal Council, led by Energy Minister Albert Rösti, proposed lifting the nuclear power plant construction ban that had been in place since 2017. Citing concerns over energy security and fossil fuel phase-out, the government seeks to amend the Nuclear Energy Act (Kernenergiegesetz) to allow the construction of new nuclear plants and extend the operational life of the existing ones.{{cite web |website=Neue Zürcher Zeitung|date=2024-08-28|title=Rösti setzt sich bei seinem Kernthema durch – der Bundesrat will das AKW-Bauverbot aufheben|url=https://www.nzz.ch/schweiz/roesti-setzt-sich-bei-seinem-kernthema-durch-der-bundesrat-will-das-akw-bauverbot-aufheben-ld.1845881|archive-url=https://archive.today/20240828165652/https://www.nzz.ch/schweiz/roesti-setzt-sich-bei-seinem-kernthema-durch-der-bundesrat-will-das-akw-bauverbot-aufheben-ld.1845881|access-date=2024-09-27|archive-date=2024-08-28}}

• Energy in Switzerland
• Electricity sector in Switzerland
• List of nuclear reactors – Switzerland
• Nuclear phase-out – Switzerland
• Science and technology in Switzerland
• Switzerland and weapons of mass destruction

{{Reflist|30em}}

• [https://web.archive.org/web/20081202063220/http://www.bfe.admin.ch/themen/00511/index.html?lang=en Nuclear energy] on the website of the Swiss Federal Office of Energy (SFOE).
• [https://web.archive.org/web/20090228064545/http://www.insc.anl.gov/pwrmaps/map/switzerland.php Maps of nuclear power reactors: Switzerland.]
• [http://nora.nerc.ac.uk/7678/1/Musson_etal_SJG.pdf Preparing a seismic hazard model for Switzerland: The view from PEGASOS Expert Group 3.]
• {{HDS|17356}}
• {{HDS|24625|Atomic Weapons}}
• Faryal Mirza, [http://swissinfo.org/eng/front/detail/Nuclear_plants_safe_but_waste_management_not.html?siteSect=105&sid=7747731&cKey=1177423174000 Nuclear plants safe but waste management not]. Swissinfo, 24 April 2007. Last accessed 24 April 2007.

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Category:Science and technology in Switzerland